A Strategic Road Map for Developing the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Sectors in Bhutan

A Strategic Road Map

for Developing the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Sectors in Bhutan

Prepared by:

Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Research,

Boriavi, Anand, Gujarat, India

Indian Council of Agricultural Research 

Study conducted under: “Organic Production of Under-utilized Medicinal, Aromatic and Natural Dye Plants Programme for Sustainable Livelihoods in South Asia” (GCP/RAS/108/IFA)

Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations

Acknowledgements

The Study team is thankful to FAO for providing the opportunity to intimately go through medicinal, aromatic and dye yielding plant sector of  Royal Government of Bhutan (RGOB) and to understand their strength and weakness of the sector so as to enable the study team to suggest future plan of action. The Study Team also thankfully acknowledge the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi for participating in this programme by allowing DMAPR to take up this work; RGOB for nominating three of the team members; Ministry of Agriculture, RGOB for logistic support as well as arranging discussion with other Government agencies such as ITMS; Mr. Raj  Ganguly, Project Coordinator, FAO for his meticulous planning and also input in improving the draft report; and to Mr. Uygen Dorji, RGOB for his  painstaking efforts in arranging the meeting with all the Govt. agencies as well as drawing the itinerary for visiting different medicinal plant growing areas and logistic arrangement for the same.

Table of contents  

Abbreviations and acronyms

1. Introduction

Human life and knowledge of preserving it as a growing concern must have come into being almost simultaneously. All known ancient civilization of the past -Egyptian, Babylonian, Jewiah, Chinese, Indus-valley etc. had their own glorious and useful systems of medicine and health care.

According to the ancient books of knowledge, health is considered as a prerequisite for achieving the supreme ends of “Me” consisting of righteousness, wealth, artistic values and spiritual freedom. Preventive and curative aspects of disease are considered as important components of the concept of positive health.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that 80% of the population of developing countries rely on traditional medicine mostly plant drugs, for their primary health care needs. Medicinal plants being natural, having no or little side effect, affordable, preventive and curative therapies which could be useful in achieving the goal of “Primary Health Care for all” in a cost effective manner. The Bhutanese Traditional System of Medicines, predominantly make use of plant based raw material in most of their preparations and formulations. Modern pharmacopoeia also contains at least 25% drugs derived from plants and many others which are synthetic analogues built on prototype compounds isolated from plants.

Demand for medicinal plants is increasing in both developing and developed countries but 100% raw material, except a few, are harvested from wild sources without applying scientific or traditional knowledge of management hence many species are under rare, endangered and threat category to become extinct. Further the loss of habitat for conservation of biodiversity is a growing challenge under climate change scenarios.

The medicinal, aromatic and natural dye plants (MADP) occupy an important position in the socio-cultural, spiritual and livelihood arena of rural people of Bhutan. Looking at the vast forest resources and its diversity, the sustainable management and harvesting could pave a way forward for generating employment, creating additional rural livelihood and enhancing export earnings. However any such intervention needs to be pragmatically planned and delivered for conserving biodiversity and sustaining human and environmental health.

The Royal Government of Bhutan (RGOB) and its various organisations, private and non government organisations (NGOs) have initiated few yet significant activities in these sectors. The RGOB has also encouraged international agencies to further strengthen these initiatives, in past. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MOAF) of RGOB partnered with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of United Nations to implement the International Fund of Agriculture Development (IFAD) funded “Organic Production of Underutilized Medicinal, Aromatic and Natural Dye Plants Programme for Sustainable Livelihoods in South Asia (GCP/RAS/208/IFA)” in Bhutan. Under this project a study of the medicinal, aromatic and natural dye plant (MADPs) sector of Bhutan was planned to suggest a strategic road map to systematically develop these sectors. The FAO entered into an agreement with Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Research (DMAPR) of Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) and requested to lead a high level composite technical team[1] (henceforth ‘Study Team’).

2. Scope, methodology and limitation of the study

The primary purpose of the study was to produce a comprehensive report for MOAF, RGOB that could suggest a strategic roadmap for holistic development of MADP sectors in Bhutan.

The scope of the study included a thorough analysis of the MADP sectors in Bhutan. It included review of the current status and future potential for production, processing and marketing of MADPs in Bhutan; thorough assessment of the cultivation and sustainable wild collection potential of MADPs and its socio-economic impact on the rural community; assessing the current level of infrastructural support in research and development in MADP sector; identifying the critical bottlenecks including legal and policy limitation, if any; and suggesting recommendations to overcome the gaps or challenges. It was also planned that the suggested strategy would be backed by a proper risk assessment including bio-diversity impact, if any.

The scope of the study required a comprehensive primary data and an in-depth value chain analysis. However, due to time limitation, the study methodology failed to adopt a broad based comprehensive approach and relied purposively on primary field observations by sector experts at select locations. High level meetings with key stakeholders and a brainstorming workshop was also conducted to identify and prioritise the major issues concerning the MADP sectors in Bhutan. A thorough analysis of the field observation and primary information collected during the study visit, discussion during the brainstorming session and collected data from secondary sources has been used to synthesize this report.

The study team included three  experts drawn by DMAPR in the field of an Ethnobotany, Plant Breedeing and  Policy planning and three local experts nominated by MOAF in the field of forestry, MAP specialist and administrator which was led by Dr. Satyabrata Maiti, Director, DMAPR (Annexure 1. Composition of study team). The services of a value chain expert could not be availed at the last moment due to administrative reasons. This report has been prepared by the team leader, with inputs received from other team members.

A 12 days study visit to the major production sites and important organizations engaged in MADP sectors in Bhutan was conducted (Annexure 2. Study Tour itinerary). The places of visits were purposively selected by the team members nominated by RGOB, as they had prior experience of working in these sectors. A brainstorming session with key stakeholders was arranged on 9^th December 2010 (Annexure 3. List of participants). Secondary information was collected from various organizations and individuals working in MADP sectors of Bhutan and through internet. 

The   report provides strategic directions in the areas of research & development, production, sustainable collection, value addition and commercialization of MADPs, so that a systematic development of the sectors could be planned. The report also provides information about various organisations and institutions working in India so that appropriate  institutions from  Bhutan, including those from Government, NGO and private sectors engaged in MADP sectors can initiate actions to create linkages.

3. Situational analysis

3.1 Ecology and socio-economic background

Bhutan is one of the of richest phyto-diversity centre within the eastern Himalayas due to its unique geographical position and one of the “Hot-Spot” regions of the world. A wide range of  agro-climatic and ecological conditions have adequately expressed themselves in giving rise to a variety of gene pool, both,  wild and cultivated plant species, which are growing abundantly in this phyto-geographical area, although a large area of Bhutan is still remain botanically unexplored.

A few narrow strips of the plains (the ‘duars’, or where the forests become swampy, the ‘terai’) are overlapping into the mountain and hills of Bhutan. The northern border of Bhutan is the main Himalayan chain on the southern edge of the Tibetan plateau, with several mountain peaks over 6100 m (20,000 ft.). Among these the highest is Kula Kangri 7554 m (24,740 ft.). Between these altitudinal extremes the interior of the country is made up of a series of six major mountain ridges alternating with seven deep river valleys, the Amo Chu/Torsa River, Thimphu Chu/Raidak River, Mo Chu/Sankosh River, Mangde Chu, Bumthang Chu, Kuru Chu and Kulong Chu/Manas River, all of which run roughly from north to south. The mountain ridges extend southwards to varying distances and because of their steepness they have in the past formed important natural barriers. The rivers of Bhutan eventually reach the Brahmaputra river system in the plains of Assam; the four rivers of eastern Bhutan unite into the Manas River before leaving Bhutan. The large rivers, e.g. Mo Chu and Manas, have carved deep valleys far into the interior of the country, and at Punakha and Tashi Yangtsi the valley floor is as low as 1500 m (4900 ft.).Where the main rivers enter the plains the beds are wide and flat with extensive deposition of silt and shingle; in the foothills and again in the northern mountains these rivers are often fast-flowing torrents, cutting through deep gorges. In central Bhutan, as at Thimphu and Bumthang, the valleys are wide and open, the water more slowly flowing, causing deposition of agriculturally valuable alluvium. The main rivers originate in the permanent snow and glaciers of the main Himalayan chain in northern Bhutan, except in eastern Bhutan, where the Kuru Chu and Nyam Jang enter Bhutan from Tibet and Arunachal Pradesh.

• Geology

Most of Bhutan is composed of a complex system of folded and metamorphosed rocks of pre-Cambrian and early Palaeozoic age, largely quartzite and gneiss, and dissected by faults running east – west. Sedimentary rocks are scarce, the oldest being of Devonian age in the Bumthang area, with later deposits in the Upper Mo Chu district (around Lingshi) and in a narrow band along the edge of the Duars and in the Manas basin. The highest peaks of Chomo Lhari, Kula Kangri etc. are formed from granite. Large areas of Bhutan remain as yet unsurveyed in details geologically.

• Climate

Only very limited meteorological data have been assembled for Bhutan and no accurate measurements of precipitation is available. It is clear that the huge range in altitude and diverse physiography produce a wide range of climatic types including great extremes of temperature and precipitation. The most important factor is the hot and humid monsoon air stream blowing northwards from the Bay of Bengal. Throughout the year, but particularly from June to September, this brings heavy rainfall to the foothills and to exposed slopes and valley throughout the interior. The ‘duars’ and foothills enjoy a subtropical climate, warm in winter, hot and extremely humid in summer. Towards the interior the climate becomes gradually more temperate, with cool or cold winters and hot summers and often heavy rainfall. Rainfall is heaviest on the steepest and most exposed slopes, where over 250 cm and possibly up to 500 cm per year may fall. Several main valleys, both at low and high altitude, are extremely dry most of the year and enjoy heavy rain only during the monsoon. Their gentle gradient produces very little direct rainfall (e.g., the Thimphu, Paro and Punakha valleys); their more steeply rising side valleys, receive a much higher rainfall. These dry valleys of the interior become very hot in summer, and very cold in winter (e.g. Paro has 71-76 cm of rain per year, with maximum temperature of 30⁰C in July and minimum of -7⁰C in December). In the mountains of northern Bhutan summers are short and cool, and winters cold with considerable snowfall and frost. The climate is clearly a very important factor governing the types of vegetation throughout Bhutan and accurate meteorological data are highly desirable.

• Population

The World Bank estimated, the Bhutanese population in 2009 at 6,97,335.

Population of Bhutan

• Role of women in Bhutan

(After www.nsbgovt.bt )

• Classification of the vegetation of Bhutan

Based on field experience, floristic composition and altitude the forests of Bhutan can be classified as follows:

1. Subtropical forest

True tropical rain forest does not exist in Bhutan; such forests are largely evergreen and require continuous rainfall throughout the year. The so-called ‘tropical forests’ of the Eastern Himalaya are largely deciduous and have a very seasonal climate with a marked winter dry season and summer wet (monsoon) season. Although they contain many largely tropical genera and species, they lie well outside the tropics and should be considered as subtropical forests. In Bhutan, the forest all along the foothills may be broadly classed as subtropical forest, forming dense jungle on steep slopes and river banks. In accessible areas, much clearing for timber and agriculture has occurred. Sal forest and Savannah forest as described by Gamble are absent, although Sal occurs as scattered trees in the Sarbhang district. Sal forests are found on the terai of Sikkim in India and to the south of Bhutan e.g., in the Siliguri district of India and may formerly have occurred within Bhutan; a small plantation exists at Phuntsholing.

1. Warm broad-leaved forest

This is essentially a type of subtropical forest, but occurs at a higher altitude with a lower rainfall and contains a mixture of evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved tree species. Many of the tropical genera, e.g., Duabanga, Pterospermum and Tetrameles, are absent, and more temperate genera appear. The transition into zones and below is a gradual one. In deeper valleys this formation occurs far into the interior, as in the Kulong Chu valley south of Tashi Yangtsi, 27⁰30^/N. However, it is most abundant throughout southern Bhutan over 1000 m e.g., on the hills N of Gaylegphug and Deothang and in the Shongar Chu Valley, patches of warm broad-leaved forests are often cleared to produce grazing.

iii. Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest

This is a low-altitude xeropytic forest occurring in the deeper dry valleys of Bhutan, viz. Mo Chu/Sankosh River, Kuru Chu and Kulong Chu/Dangme Chu systems. These valleys have a very long dry season during which burning is common, and heavy rain occurs only in the monsoon season when abundant herbs, especially grasses, appear. Grazing is widespread. The pines are resistant to burning but the shrub layer is more susceptible and therefore poorly developed. Almost no other tree species occur. The pines are tapped for turpentine, and the timber used for building; their rarity in some valleys (e.g. at Tashigang) may be due to excessive felling. Such forest is rare in the Darjeeling district of India, but occurs in Sikkim in the Great Rangit and Tista valleys, where it is often mixed with Sal.

1. iv. Cool broad-leaved forest

On moist exposed slopes above the warm broad-leaved forests one of two types of forest usually develops according to rainfall. The drier type contains a dominance of evergreen Castanopsis or Quercus species and is designated Evergreen oak forest. The wetter type, Cool broad forest, is a more mixed forest in which oaks are less common, and other trees, both deciduous and evergreen e.g. Lauraceae, Exbucklandia etc. are more abundant together with dense shrubs, climbers and many epiphytes.   In Bhutan Cool broad-leaved forest is extensive in some eastern districts e.g. around Tshilingor and on the steep hillsides of Sengor.

1. Evergreen oak forest

These forests are a very characteristic feature of some parts of central Bhutan, especially around Tongsa and on the hills above Mongar. They apparently receive a lower rainfall than Warm broad-leaved forests, and composition varies according to altitude and rainfall. At lower levels Castanopsis hystrix and C. tribuloides are often dominant, higher up Quercus lamellose becomes commoner; with increasing dryness more xerophytic Quercus species e.g., Q. lanata, Q. griffithii and Q. semecarpifolia, and sometimes Pinus wallichiana appear. The shrub layer is often poorly represented, whilst the shady humid forest floor is dominated by small herbs e.g., Urticaceae and bryophytes. Felling is mainly to create grazing land and for firewood; the oak forests of Bhutan are little exploited for timber.

1. Blue pine (Pinus wallichina) forest

This is the temperate equivalent of the Chir pine forest and occupies the inner dry valleys of Bhutan where rainfall is very low except during the monsoon season. Unlike Chir pine it is very susceptible to fire. It is best developed in the Ha, Paro and Thimphu valleys in west Bhutan and in the Bumthang and Gyetsa valley in farther east.   In these valleys it is often dominant and acts as a pioneer colonist of burnt or disturbed ground. The only tree species commonly associated is Quercus griffithii but many xerophytic shrubs occur, as do herbs which mostly appear during the monsoon. There is a gradual transition between this and Evergreen oak forest. In the main valleys, where slopes are gentler, most of Blue pine forest has been cleared for cultivation and timber.

vii. Spruce (Picea) forest

Spruce forest, together with the rather similar Hemlock and Fir forests; occupy the montane cloud-forest zone of Bhutan between the temperate broad-leaved forests and the tree-line. Although often two or all three of the dominant elements are mixed with each or with pine, larch, oak, maple, birch etc. separate forests types can frequently be recognized.

Spruce forest is found at a lower altitude than the other two, and is apparently somewhat drier; is more local in distribution but is found in the Thimphu district and is particularly well-developed in the Bumthang district (around Ura and the Ura La). Picea spinulosa is the common dominant species, but in Eastern Bhutan P. brachytyla forms mixed stands with it. Rhododendrons are less frequent than in Hemlock and Fir forests.

viii. Hemlock (Tsuga dumosa) forest

This is similar to Spruce forest but appears to require a higher precipitation, which results both from mist condensation and a high rainfall, but no precise data are available. Shrubby and arborescent rhododendrons are frequent and the high humidity is ideal for dense growth of epiphytic and terrestrial ferns, lichens and bryophytes. Roadsides, landslips and cleared areas are often colonized by dense bamboo thickets. Mixed stands with the other montane conifers are common. In Bhutan, Hemlock forest is common on the main mountain ridges below the Fir forests, throughout the central and northern parts of the country.

1. Fir (Abies densa) forest

Fir forest is characteristics of the highest forested ridges throughout Bhutan, where huge tracts are covered by virtually no other three species, apart from hemlock and birch in places. The dense canopy provides a humid environment for a luxuriant understory of Rhododendron and other shrubs, and the mossy ground layer supports many small herbs, e.g. Primula species and Bryocarpum himalaicum. As the tree-line is approached, at around 3600-3800 m, the firs become more stunted and are mixed with junipers and smaller Rhododendron species. As in Hemlock forest, in addition to the high rainfall, considerable mist-precipitation must derive from the frequent cloud cover. In parts of Bhutan areas of Fir forest have been cleared for cultivation and grazing; these areas if abandoned could be rapidly colonized by bamboos.

1. Juniper/Rhododendron scrub

This moist scrub vegetation occurs above the tree line throughout Northern and Central Bhutan. Typically it consists of scattered shrubs of Juniperus, Rhododendron and Potentilla arbuscula but with a rich herb layer appearing during the monsoon season. Damp grassy meadows are commonly found in this zone and more extensive grasslands may result from a long history of grazing. No detailed meteorological or ecological data are available for this vegetation, which is floristically extremely rich and contains many plants much prized in horticulture.

1. Dry alpine scrub

This is a more xerophytic vegetation found at higher altitudes than the moist Juniper/Rhododendron scrub, and probably is widespread in Northern Bhutan and on the higher ridges of Central Bhutan (e.g., on the Black Mountain). The precise extent of its distribution and exact composition are unknown. It is clearly allied to the steppe vegetation of Tibetan plateau of which genera such as Caragana, Chesneya and Ephedra are characteristic.

• Agriculture

Agriculture is the dominant employment (43.6%) and main livelihood (80%) source. It contributes 22.3% (Data Released on 2010) of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), of which about 8% come from livestock and 7% from forestry.   At the macro-economic level, Bhutan is doing extremely well with an average GDP growth rate of 6 % over last two decades (Tshering, 2009). The GDP in 2010 (estimate) is over US$ 1.397 billion with a per capita GDP of US $2042, one of the highest in the South Asia (Global Finance Data Base, 2010).

However, agriculture development is also constrained with many factors. Firstly, the limited arable land (7.8% of the total land area) is further coupled with the loss of some of the most productive agricultural lands to urban development. Secondly, most agricultural lands are scattered around small, remote settlements on hill slopes and valley bottoms. Thus a limited access to markets is coupled with a low potential for mechanization. Thirdly, the proneness to natural disaster (monsoon floods and landslides) further marginalizes the highly integrated, diverse and labor-intensive farming systems. Fourthly, the rural population has to make a living on an average income of less than half of that of the urban population (Bhutan Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2004) leading to rural urban migration and thus creating shortages of labour and subsequently increasing the cost of production of agricultural goods. There is, therefore, an urgent need to intensify agriculture production

Although agricultural development is slowly changing the face of rural Bhutan, it is still overwhelmingly characterized by subsistence agriculture with high demand for labour and low levels of productivity. Crop production, livestock and forestry activities are closely interrelated and interdependent. Crops account for a 20% share of GDP, livestock for 8% and forestry for 9% of GDP (UNDP 1997). More than 80% of the population depends upon agriculture and animal husbandry for their livelihood (FAO, 1996b).

The gender division of tasks in agriculture is not very clear in Bhutan. While some tasks are generally allocated by gender, others may be performed by both men and women, and men and women can to a large extent take over from each other. Bhutanese women are usually engaged in firewood collection, crop cultivation, vegetable gardening, yak herding, traditional weaving using vegetal dyes and other handicraft making. Men, by tradition, are engaged in ploughing, construction, trading and other business or manual activity (Gurung, 1997). The division of labour by gender also differs between ethnic groups, so that it is most pronounced among Lotshampas, and least among Sharchopas. Women in Bhutan have traditionally been involved in activities related to housekeeping, agriculture, animal husbandry and cottage industry, and would appear to play an important role equal to men in rural economics. But in all ethnic groups it is men’s task to plough the fields with oxen.

Unlike most other South Asian countries, Bhutanese society is mainly matriarchal and women have equal status to men not only in the eye of the law but also in the home. Land ownership in Bhutan is officially registered by gender and it appears to be gender-biased in favour of women. Women own 70% of the land. This pattern holds true in the ownership of the livestock as well. Most decisions are made jointly by women and men and in many areas such as spending of money earned from kitchen gardening and farm labour, women are free to decide independently.

Most cultivation in Bhutan occurs in the inner populated temperate valleys of the central belt, where rice and cereals are most widely grown. Although dry, these valleys yield good crops on account of the high summer temperature and plentiful irrigation water from the rivers. In this belt, e.g. in the Ha, Paro, Thimphu and Bumthang valleys, considerable forest clearing has occurred for agriculture. In the warm temperate and subtropical zones, agriculture is less extensive and frequently occupies smaller areas of cleared forest. Throughout Bhutan terracing of the hillsides is utilized to increase the area of cultivated ground.

• Forestry

Bhutan’s forests are among the most important remains of natural Eastern Himalayan forests. They are characterized by exceptional biological diversity and Bhutan is considered one of the world’s ten most important “hot spots”. Forest in Bhutan is state owned, but rural people have traditional user rights for grazing, collection of fuel wood and non-wood forest products, and thus the forest is an important resource base for the rural communities. Forests provide over 90% of the domestic fuel in the rural areas as well as timber for rural housing and farm buildings (Rosenegger, 1998). Forests also play an important role in food security in Bhutan. Food from the forests becomes critical to the rural areas when transporting food to these areas is difficult, when people do not have money to buy food and when there is crop failure. Non-agricultural activities are a significant source of livelihood for rural people, who form 75% of the population. Of the non-agricultural activities collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are amongst the most important livelihood activities in rural communities of Bhutan. This is evident from the array of NTFP based items (cooking utensils, containers, food products, medicine) that exist in Bhutanese farmhouses. Quantities and number of sellers of NTFP based food and non-food products in the vegetable markets in urban areas show that NTFPs are an important source of income for farmers. However, due to the lack of adequate quantitative data on the benefits of NTFPs, it is difficult to determine statistically how important NTFPs are for the lives of rural farmers. Among the few quantitative studies, a study conducted in western Bhutan found that NTFPs account for 21% of the household diet and 19% of household income (Namgyel P, 1996).Bhutan’s forests contain a wealth of NTFPs. In  southern Bhutan, 120 species were identified, including 22 edible mushrooms, 4 tea plants, 13 medicinal plants, 15 vegetables, as well as edible oil plants, dyes, cane,  bamboo, fruits, incense, yeast and gum (Namgyel P, 2005). Of the large variety of products used by local people, only a few are

traded on a commercial basis.Fuel wood and water collection is often undertaken by women. However, men sometimes take on fuel wood and water collection, and even child care. House-husbands are common in many communities in Bhutan (Gurung, 1997). Heavy work like felling trees for house construction is done by men. Mushroom collection provides a sizeable income to many women and their families. About 45% of the medicinal plants collectors are women. Some have even traditionally been involved in cultivating and harvesting medicinal plants (Gurung, 1997).

Forestry is a comparatively new industry in Bhutan. Due to its complex geography and topography, only about 7.8% of Bhutan’s land area has been cleared for agriculture (Yangzom, 2008), rest under forest and much of it is completely undisturbed by man. Most forest clearance has been in the southern sub-tropical belt for export to India and in the central belt around towns and villages. Legislation has been introduced to protect these forests and the Forest Department has developed a vigorous forest survey and management policy with selective felling and replanting of important timber species.

3.1.8 Environment

The environment in Bhutan is still relatively intact. This is partly due to the recent start of the development process, and partly to the high priority given to environmental sustainability and conservation by the Royal Government of Bhutan. The Government has declared its firm intention to maintain a 60% forest cover and 26% in the form of protected areas, even at the cost of economic opportunities foregone. Moreover, the Buddhist philosophy of love and respect to nature has greatly influenced people’s attitude to the environment.

People in Bhutan live in harmony with nature in a symbiotic relationship that goes back to untold centuries. The rural community’s relationship with environment is reflected in the abundant use of various kinds of plants for medicine, essential and vegetable oil, traditional paper, natural vegetable dyes, etc. Domesticated ornamental plants are widely known to Bhutan’s rural folk. For the various ethnic groups livelihood strategies in the mountains depend largely on their knowledge and management of its diverse genetic resources. Women provide much of the labour for natural resource management which sustains the family (Ehsan, 1993; Shrestha, 1997; Thapa, 1997). Seed management is one particular area of women’s work which is of great significance to biodiversity. Women have traditionally been the custodians of crop germplasm and their diversity for generations. As women play a leading role in the fields as well as in communities they are in position to gather new varieties through farmer-to-farmer exchanges (Gurung, 1997).

Even so, emerging environmental problems like degradation of forests close to settlements cause longer working hours for the rural people, as they have to walk longer distances to collect fuelwood. These emerging problems may not be gender-biased, though.

• Floristic wealth of Bhutan

Bhutan encompasses enormous floristic diversity with the different species of Saxifragas, Primulas, Rhododendrons, Orchids, Impatiens, Pedicularis and a number of medicinal plants, horticultural plants and the taxa of ethnobotanical interest.  Till date about 4334 species under 1411genera belongs to 242 families are reported from Bhutan, of which 8 families, 14 genera and 21 species are of naked seeded plants. The genus Saxifraga is represented by as many as 66 species which is the highest species containing genus among the flowering plants of the country. Among the total flowering plant species there are about 2700 herbs, 892 shrubs, 532 trees and 210 climbers (Flora of Bhutan, 1983).

Eastern Himalayan region being a centre of active speciation this country also harbours more than 100 endemic taxa.

3.2 Medicinal  Aromatic Plant Wealth in Bhutan

Bhutan is home to approximately 4334 species of plants out of the 50000 endemic plant species thriving in global hot spots of the world.  Bhutan has been identified as one of the 10 global hotspots of ecological diversity of the world.  There are about 82 endemic plant species discovered in Bhutan. More than 600 species of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are reported to be growing in Bhutan. Besides, there are numerous fungal and parasitic flora with medicinal values thriving in the remote terrains of the country. These plant treasures have earned for Bhutan its historical I The global picture name “the land of medicinal herbs” (Ref.: Project Report: BTN/AIDCO/99/0081, RGOB).

In Bhutan MAPs are essential parts of traditional health care system. Amongst the Bhutanese people, MAPs evoke a spontaneous interest to meet the heath and religious need. gSo-ba Rig-pa, a traditional practice of curing ailments involves the use of MAPs. The gSo-ba Rig­pa distinguishes medicines according to their source. The Sgo­sman- medicines are those obtained from high altitude plants, the Khrog­sman medicines are those obtained from low altitude plants and Rtsi­sman are those obtained from extracts of plant resins and minerals. Others are also the rdo­man, Rin-po-che-sman, Sa-sman etc depending on the source and extraction processes.

In recent years, MAPs have been recognized as a source of significant livelihood especially to the rural poor as they provide cash income, medicines and supplementary nutrition. There has also been an upsurge of global demand for MAPs (EU Project Peport:BTN/AIDCO/99/0081). Conservative estimates put the monetary value of MAP-related global trade at over 60 billion USD (Govt. of India, 2000). With increasing popular demand for MAPs, both in South Asia and internationally, this trade is expected to grow to 5 trillion by the year 2050 (FRLHT, 1996). The increasing demand of these MAPs both globally and locally has provoked the supply markets to stretch creating a hoard of environmental, social, legal and technical problems.

A significant offshoot of the increasing demand for medicinal plant in Bhutan is the birth of networks of illegal traders in the region resulting in over exploitation of these plants. This has threatened the sustainability of the alpine ecosystem. The expansion of unregulated trade and commercial use of MAPs poses a major threat to biodiversity in the region. Local communities tend to collect the highest value or most popular plant species, leading to over-harvesting or species extinction. The threat is also compounded by the ever increasing expansion of agricultural lands and increasing herds of cattle feeding on the sub alpine pastoral lands.

The government is adequately alert to these situations. Sufficient energy and drive has been put to address these issues. Government policies and plans are beginning to take shape. MAPs are now considered potential resources for uplifting rural economy and generating employment for the unemployed youth. MAPs are also considered as a bridge between sustainable economic development, affordable health care and conservation of lifeline of Bhutan, bio-diversity. Policies and plans to harness the optimum potential MAPs are beginning to establish its roots and bearing fruits.

3.3 Ethno-medicine

As the ethnic communities of Bhutan are traditionally using the plant resources for their food, shelter and for health care as medicinal uses, they have rich traditional knowledge of wild plants as the natural resources for their food, shelter, medicines, fodder, dye, fibre etc.  Bhutan is a cornucopia of ethnic people and they live in the fringe areas of the country and almost entirely depend on the forest resources.

The local health practitioner known as  “medicine man” is well trained up about the identity of medicinal plants. They harvest the plants and prescribe those for treatment after proper processing and often properly store these material for future uses. They use these plants or plant parts / products to cure the diseases like bodyache, toothache, stomachache, joints pain, breast pain, fever, cold and cough, diarrhea and dysentery, cut and wounds, nasal bleeding, skin treatment, menstrual disorder, throat pain, bone fracture, leprosy, heart diseases, arthritis, gastric impaction, piles, vomiting, urinary track infection, hydrocyl, liver disorder, expectorant, anathematic, constipation, antiseptic, obesity, excessive seminal discharge, constipation, jaundice, to increase sexual potency,  asthma, food poisoning, snake bite, rheumatism etc. which are very common local health problems. According to an estimation more than 600 medicinal plant species are being reported from the country (Ref: RGOB: Project:BTN/AIDCO/99/0081).

3.4 Policy and Legal Instruments available in RGOB

1. National Forestry Policy of Bhutan, 1974: This policy protects the land, forest, soil, water resources and biodiversity against degradation such as loss of fertility, ecological damages etc. and allows harvesting of Medicinal plants according to conservation and management plans in order to protect it from ecological damages and total extinction of the species.
2. Forest and nature Conservation Act of Bhutan, 1995: This Act is to ensure an adequate supply of basic forest products to meet the needs of the population with due recognition of the multiple responsibilities for forest resources and their sustainable management and use.  Medicinal plants are recognized as a commodity that can be harvested for economic usage by the community. The concerned government agencies need to provide information on resource availability and management plan for each species.

• The Biodiversity Act of Bhutan, 2003: The Act safeguards genetic resources especially from bio-prospecting and export of genetic resources. It protects traditional knowledge and defines requirements for access permits. Through this Act, a rationalized collection, cultivation and trading process of MAPs should be established. One entity should be interface between the authorities and the farmers, traders, cultivators for all the processes related to MAPs.

1. Forest and nature Conservation rules of Bhutan, 2006: A group of at least ten households willing to establish, control and manage a forest area as a community forest in accordance with these rules can form a community forest management group (CFMG). The CFMG is authorised under the rules to control the management of the community forest in accordance with the forest management plan. A community of farmers can form a group under this rule and cultivate or collect medicinal plants from the forest. Cooperatives of MAP farmers are encouraged to take up MAPs collection, cultivation and trading.

3.5 Role of Traditional Bhutanese Medical System in promoting MAPs

China has “Chinese Medicine”, India has “Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha” as Indian System of Medicines (ISM), similarly  Traditional Bhutanese Medicine (TBM) is the  ancient health care system of Bhutan which is providing affordable healthcare in the remote villages where accessibility even today is not only difficult but also time consuming.  One great strength and success behind the TBM is the availability and supply of so many unique, endemic, high altitude medicinal plants that can take care not only primary health care need but also provide cure for large number of chronic diseases.

• Commercial outfit of Bhutan dealing with MAPs

• Institute of Traditional Medicine Services (ITMS): is a research and development organization engaged in production and supply of drugs of g.so-ba-rig-pa tradition of Bhutan. There are three functional units under the ITMS as follows:

1. National Traditional Medicine Hospital is responsible for the development and provision of quality traditional medical care including different therapies. It is headed by the Superintendent and there are 8 Drungtshos (Traditional Physicians) working in this hospital.
2. National Institute of Traditional Medicine is headed by the Principal and is responsible for development of human resources required for the traditional medicine services. Five Drungtshos are working in the Institute as lecturers.
3. Pharmaceutical and Research Unit is responsible for the manufacturing and production of medicines, conducting quality control for both raw materials and finished products, carrying out research activities and marketing of the products. The unit is headed by a Pharmacist In-charge.

Although the Bhutanese traditional medical texts described about 2000 ingredients, out of which ITMS usages about 267 raw material  including 201 medicinal plants for production of 98 medicines. Therefore, it is very important that the medicinal plants are scientifically identified, described and sustainably utilized for the benefit of Bhutanese people for their health and livelihood.

3.6.2 Bio Bhutan: is a pioneer enterprise that produces and markets natural and organic certified products from Bhutan for Bhutanese and international markets. The company sources all the raw materials from farmer groups living in well defined areas scattered across the country. Processing of the products is carried out by the farmer groups under the supervision of Bio Bhutan. Final value addition and packaging is carried out by Bio Bhutan and sold at local, regional and international markets.

Currently, there is no certification expertise within the country. Hence, foreign expertise through a certification agency   of India  has been engaged for the time being.  The company has well established links with Bio Inspecta (Switzerland) and its partner organization INDOCERT, an Indian Certification agency .   INDOCERT follows EU Standards and Regulations for organic products. The company also initiated the certification of three products in 2005, and organic certificates have been obtained for two of them (lemon grass oil and Pipla: Piper longrum; P. nigrum) in January, 2006 from INDOCERT-an Indian certification agency.

The company has also established marketing links with customers in India, USA, Singapore, Switzerland, UK and Luxury Hotels and Shops in Bhutan. Promotion of Bio Bhutan are carried out through their website www.biobhutan.com., advertisements in the local television, newspaper, Druk Air in-flight magazine and in business travel directory of Bhutan.

Currently, bio-Bhutan markets products like:

• Herbal tea
• Ginger tea
• Turmeric
• Ginger
• Honey
• Cordyceps sinensis Gift Pack
• Organic certified lemon grass oil
• Lemon grass spray
• Organic certified pipla

Bio Bhutan is also exploring opportunities for trading organic ginger, processed fruits, Chirayata (Swertia chirayita), buckwheat, Ruta (Saussurea lappa), red rice, Bhutanese herbal bath and herbal tea.

• National Women’s Association of Bhutan (NWAB): was established on 9th April, 1981 by the 33rd resolution passed by the 53rd session of the National Assembly. It was first established as an NGO and discharged with the responsibility to promote socio economic conditions of women throughout the country.

The primary role of the association was structured on the forward looking strategies for the advancement of women adopted at the UN conference in Nairobi in 1985 and the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW). In 1990 NWAB was identified as the national body dedicated to the advancement of women. NWAB is currently registered with the UN as national machinery for the advancement of women.

It promotes the socio-economic conditions of the disadvantaged women through promotion of economic opportunities, development of capability and raising awareness of the women rights and potentials. Currently the association is involved in the MAPs cultivation’ at Trongsa, Shitake Mushroom collection, and Ginger cultivation in four districts of central and south east districts of Bhutan.

3.7 Role of European Union (EU) Medicinal Plant Project

The EU Medicinal Plant Project was in operation in the country in Phase I and Phase II. This was the longest project in operation in Bhutan on Medicinal Plants. The project has contributed immensely to revive the and put the Bhutanese Traditional  Medicine (BTM) on a modern delivery system by product development in the form of tablets, capsules, syrups, etc. It has demonstrated the need of supply chain having upstream, midstream and downstream regulations. The activities of the project were:

1. Mapping of range and population of selected wild species
2. Research into plant domestication

• Monitoring activities for market channelization

1. Establishment of village associations
2. Implementation of medicinal plants cultivation programme
3. Market surveys and audits of export markets

• Market development and diversification
• Development of strategic partnerships and contract manufacturing

1. Market testing of new products
2. Improvement of existing products dosage and product technology
3. Scientific validation and therapeutic claims

• New product development
• Reorientation of R & D Lab
• Establishment of commercial pricing system

1. Marketing skills, capacity building and organizational enhancement

• Development and Implementation of the MIS package
• Expending of production and storage area & proving the production conditions
• Assisting evolution of PRU as a commercial entity
• Improve operational efficiency

1. Institution of a quality management system through GMP training workshop and conducting stability studies of Traditional Medicine

• Training of farmers, collectors and extension staff
• Participation in regional and / international conferences
• Training in marketing and TM product development
• Training in quality assurance, research and production through training of pharmacy technicians, training in Pharmacognosy/ Pharmaceutical sciences, occupational health and safety, equipment handling and maintenance, financial and business management, project accounting and financial management, etc.

The project has tried to encompass all the value chains of Bhutanese Traditional Medicine within the project period. However, continuity of the activities created in the project needs to be assured in future for harvesting the fruits of the good efforts.

3.8 Current activities in Collection, cultivation and marketing of MAPs

Bhutan has only a few MAP species under cultivation. Majority of the MAPs are in the wild. No concerted effort has been made to cultivate MAPs. Presently, some MAPs species are under various stages of research in different agriculture research centers.

There are only a handful of farmers who cultivate MAPs for commercial purposes. The National Women’s Association of Bhutan has organized several farmers to cultivate Inula helenium (manu), Carum curvi, Zanthoxylum armatum and Saussurea lappa (ruta). A few farmers in Bumthang are also engaged in the cultivation of these two species.

The remote areas of the country are also the habitation for most MAPs. It is presently the poor indigenous people who are dependent on the MAPs for a portion of their livelihood. The 10th Plan with poverty alleviation as the central theme envisages that more remote communities to benefit the most out of the trade in MAPs. Most of the rural communities who depend on MAPs for a significant portion of their livelihood are actually collectors. They collect MAPs from the wild and generate cash income from the trade in MAPs. Most of their collected MAPs are sold at auctions organized by the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) for Cordyceps, to ITMS or local incense factory for other MAPs. Similarly, in Kalapang village community collection and processing of Emblica officinalis has been in operation for last few years. The produce is mainly consumed by the ITMS. The collection area possesses the following resource as informed by Mr. Pema Dendup, GFEO Saling Gewog.

Table: Data on population distribution of Amla at Kalapang area

3.8.1  Demand and Supply Position of MAPs in Bhutan

The major demand of MAP comes from Institute of Traditional Medicine Services and small scale incense factories present in Bhutan. A little quantity is also consumed by the local practitioners as well as Priests of various monasteries.

In addition to pharmaceutical use some quantity of essential oil is used for toiletries and soap making industries. Although ITMS usages about  species of plants  for their drugs preparation, quantity consumption is very low and met by small farmers for certain species and by local collators.  Major impediment of the sector is lack of volume both in internal consumption as well as export demand at present.

3.8.2 Marketing

At present a sizable volume of only three MAPs are traded within the country. Most of the MAPs are sold for home consumption. The Institute of Traditional Medicine is increasingly becoming a consumer for most MAPs cultivated and collected in the country. Generally within the country these MAPs are used for religious ceremonies as well as for medicines. About 250 plants are used commonly by the traditional practitioners of the Gso-ba-rig-pa system of medicine. Historically the local people have been engaged in the use and take care of MAPs. Therefore the local and traditional knowledge of MAPs are very rich, which created an interest to rise momentum  in the trade of MAPs.

MAPs are exported from Bhutan through both formal and informal marketing channels. Knowledge on informal export is limited but popularly the trading takes place across the Indian borders. There are also instances where people hand carry the plants to countries like Singapore, Thailand, Hongkong and Taiwan. MAPs exported Under the formal export arrangement include such as lemon grass oil, mushroom species, Cordyceps, Chirayata, Pipla and Rubia. No systematic study has so far been carried out to measure the export potential of the Bhutanese MAPs. However, many private individuals and entrepreneurs are showing interest to export MAPs.  Cordyceps is visibly one of the most exported MAPs in the recent years which is now exported to   eight countries. Large quantities of Inula helenium (manu) and Saussurea lappa (ruta) are cultivated and are used locally for medicinal purposes either at the ITMS or by the villagers themselves. There is good scope for the cultivation of more MAPs and for developing MAPs industry that could generate employment for a large number of people and also earn foreign exchange. Some 300 plants, mostly found in Bhutan   and some imported such as Saraca indica and Santalum album, as well as minerals and few animal parts are used to produce 98 herbal health care items and 8 other items of nutriceuticals, incense, herbal tea, etc.

The Agricultural Marketing Services is engaged to look into the marketing aspects of all agricultural produce viz. agriculture, horticulture, livestock and non-wood forest products across the country.  Marketing has a crucial role to play not only in realizing the national goals of increasing rural income, generating employment opportunities and attaining national food security but also in shaping a vibrant modern agriculture sector consistent with the national vision and people’s aspirations. At present Agriculture Marketing Service is aiming at the following programmes:

• Market Research & Development Program
• Market Information Systems Development Program
• Agribusiness and Trade Promotion Program
• Marketing Extension Programs & Farmers Group Formation
• Market Infrastructure Development Program

Bhutan’s marketing system is characterized by the high transportation costs which result in very high selling prices. The predominant historical reliance on India and Bangladesh as major export markets also contributes to the narrow export market for Bhutan. Bhutan’s international trade is solely reliant on the Kolkata port in India and the Druk Air, its national airlines with flights only to India, Nepal and Thailand.

3.9 Emerging Scenario in World Trade of MAPs

Export opportunities of natural products are tremendous, as the world market is looking towards natural sources for the purposes of therapeutic use as well as nutritional dietary supplements. The global herbal remedies market can be classified into five strategic areas as follows:

• Phyto-Pharmaceuticals – the plant derived drugs containing compounds used to treat diseases, isolated pure active compounds
• Medicinal Botanicals / Botanical Extracts / Herbal or Dietary Supplements-the whole plant or plant-part extracts, (either whole extracts or standardised extracts) used for maintenance of health by affecting a body structure and its function
• Nutraceuticals – the foods containing supplements from natural (botanical) sources, that deliver a specific health benefit, including prevention and treatment of disease
• Cosmeceuticals – the cosmetic products which contain biologically active ingredients (of botanical origin) having an effect on the user
• Herbal raw material

Herbal raw material market is very large but no definite estimates are available till date to quantify its size in dollar terms. The principal suppliers however to this market are the developing countries who collect the raw material mainly through wild sources.

Immense opportunities for Bhutan MAP industries exists in the global market in view of its value added clean herbal resources from undisturbed ecology. Bhutan needs to exploit the international market on a much larger and organised scale than what it is doing presently.

3.10  Emerging scenario in neighbouring India

 Unsustainable ways of harvesting and unrestricted marketing have led to the reduction in population of some of the high demand medicinal plants leading to sudden escalation in prices of these crude drugs in the market. AVS, Kottakal, informs that it is unable to get sufficient raw drugs of Saussurea lappa, Aconitum heterophyllum, Trichosanthes cucumerina (Jangli Padwal) and Coscinium fenestratum for use in their pharmacies. Bharat Ayurvedic Stores, Lucknow, informed that  Asparagus adscendens,  Orchis latifolia and Anacyclus pyrethrum are in short supply. In addition, Hedychium spicaturn, Aconitum heterophyllum and Pterocarpus santalinus are also reported to be in short supply by Gufic Healthcare, Mumbai.   Similar is the case with Coptis teeta, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum emodi, Rauwolfia serpentina, Embelia ribes, Gloriosa superba, etc. (GOI, 2000)

Recognising the trend, many large pharmacies like Dabur, Zandu, Himalaya drugs, AVS Kottakal, Shree Dhootpapeshwar etc., have started promoting contract farming of medicinal plants to meet their demand. The  pharmaceutical industries like Cipla, Natural remedies, Core Health Care, Cadila Health Care, Bio-Ved Pharma etc., who specialise in production of a few speciality drugs/chemicals from plant sources are also involved in contractual cultivation to supplement their requirements. These companies enter into buy-back arrangements with the growers and employ modern product standardisation techniques. Established traders of crude drugs also feel that promotion of cultivation of medicinal plants is a step in right direction.

Growing popularity of herbal medicines in health care systems and the trend of increase in their export demand are quite apparent. Estimated figures indicate 15 -20% growth of Indian pharmaceutical concerns per year. Figures projecting global trade in medicinal plant species indicate a steep upward trend in near future. According to the World Bank report 1998 world trade in medicinal plants and related products is expected to be of the order of US $ 5 trillion by   2050.

Unrestricted exploitation of crude drugs from natural sources without proper measures of conservation have brought the natural medicinal plant wealth of the country to a situation where twenty six species have become endangered, seven species on the verge of extinction and ten to threatened status. This calls for urgent measures for in-situ and ex-situ conservation of such species coupled with cultivation for sustained development of growing herbal drug industry. Policy intervention and support is, therefore, urgently needed for conservation and to encourage and facilitate investments into commercial cultivation of medicinal plants

3.11 Major issues in MAP sector development

4. Key areas of intervention

4.1 Species prioritization

One of the significant efforts made by RGOB for prioritizing MAPs was the stakeholder workshop organized by the Ministry of Agriculture on November, 16, 2007. Stakeholder representatives included various agencies such as the MoA, private sector and the NGOs.

Worksop finalized the following species for commercial utilization

1. Aconitum heterophyllum/lacinatum (Tsendhug)
2. Acorus calamus (Chudala)
3. Carim curvi (Carraway)
4. Cordyceps sinensis (Yartsa guenbup)
5. Cymbopogon spp. (Lemon grass)
6. Illicium griffithi
7. Picrorhiza scrophulariifolia (Hong-Ien)
8. Saussurea lappa (Ruta)
9. Swertia chirayita
10. Aquilaria malaccensis (Agar wood)
11. Ellettaria cardamom (Sugmyel)
12. Piper longum (Pipla long)
13. Piper nigrum (Pipla short)
14. Piper pedicellatum or peepuloides ( together known as Pipia in local trade)
15. Zanthoxylum armatum (Sichuan pepper)
16. Zanthoxylum piperidum
17. Murraya koenigii (Curry plant)

4.2 Standards and quality

The single most important factor which is standing in the way of wider acceptance of drugs based on medicinal plants for exports is non-availability of standards for quality testing by modern methods. A serious thought is needed to be given in this aspect. Even with the best of intentions, no system of medicine can achieve any degree of credibility and mass acceptance unless some degree of quality control or quality assurance is maintained. In fact, absence of regulation governing the identity and quality of herbs in the international trade has enabled substitutes, adulterated as well as fake plants to penetrate the international market, thus giving a bad name to the particular system of medicine.

Quality control in the case of synthetic drugs is much simpler and easier than in the case of drugs prepared from medicinal plants where multiplicity of active ingredients can create a difficulty in quality assurance. The main difficulty in preparing the standards is that most of these products use whole herbs or parts of plants or their extracts and in some cases even a mixture of number of plants. It is also difficult to assure quality of these plants, as, medicinal plants collected in different seasons from the same place can exhibit marked difference in the content of active constituents. It is challenging to develop suitable standards for these drugs.  It is also difficult to measure and quantity the  quality  of various constituents and their therapeutic activity. Again, the standardization of such drugs does not end with the identification or assay of active ingredient, rather it embodies total information and controls which are necessary to guarantee constituents of composition. Quality of raw drugs are influenced by many factors such as age of the plant, the area of origin, harvesting time, method of drying, storage condition, manufacturing process, packing etc. Thus, there are number of bottlenecks in establishing standards for medicinal plants. In this line, there is a need for institutional development for

Official Crude MAP drug Certification Centre

First of all, the crude drugs of standard quality need to be identified and preserved as the reference standard. Therefore, a National Repository of Crude Drugs with an excellent herbarium having authentic reference samples needs to be established. This centre should have the crude drug samples (processed medicinal plants), herbarium specimen, chemical finger print profiles, anatomical slides, supporting literatures-and a collection of living plants. It should provide easy access to wide range of groups including traders, medical practitioners, plant chemists, TM students, academics, regulators as well as the herbal manufacturing industry. User services will also have to be made available. This repository should act as official certification centre for raw materials. In addition to the crude drug samples, it is also necessary to have reference samples of standard marker compounds. A repository of such marker compounds can be developed at the centre

4.3  Knowledge, skills and capacity building

This may be achieved by human resource development in the MAP based products. There is need to initiate HRD in the following areas of operations by exposure visits to institutions/private companies/farmers field etc. in neighbouring country/within country, conducting training programmes, introducing MAPs in academia,  knowledge exchange etc.:

1. For Good Agricultural Practices
2. For Good Forest Collections
3. For Manufacturing of Medicines
4. For Drug testing
5. For Good Manufacturing Practices
6. For checking Pharmacological and toxicological standards
7. For marketing of MAP raw material and products

4.4 Awareness and Publicity of Plant Based Products 

Plant based products whether in the name Traditional medicines  or marketed as food items have been regularly used in the country. The knowledge about the medicinal value of the plants has been systematically documented and the therapies are regularly practiced. With the recent trends towards the use of herbal and natural products there is a need to popularise these products at an international level especially in Europe and USA. The ingredients and the efficacy of the plants need to be projected through the print and electronic media, particularly their strength in treating specific problems like Diabetes, hypertension, liver disorders, Allergic disorders, Arthritis, Neurological disorders, Obesity and Ulcerative-colitis. Their immunomodulatory properties and their efficacy in treating autoimmune disorders like rheumatic conditions must be made known more widely. Various Missions, High Commissions and Embassies of Bhutan in various countries also need to be provided with the literature on Bhutanese Medicinal plants, their uses as well as the literature on Bhutanese Traditional Medicines for various countries.

4.5 Research and Development and Education

In order to harness the potential of MAP of Bhutan into economic wealth, a focused R&D programme is essential. The R & D has to cover all aspects relating to the species from collection to utilisation. MAPs may be categorised as: (i) those which are having proven medicinal value as traditional knowledge (ii) those on which sufficient leads are available, and (iii) those on which much work is required to be done in future.

Research investigations may be initiated on the following aspects with the help of their existing Research facilities by distributing responsibilities among the inter-departmental and inter-ministerial set-ups. Collaboration within the SARRC countries /Indian institutions may also be explored.

1. Economic mapping of the spontaneous flora.
2. Evolving and optimising the most appropriate technologies for conservation, especially for endangered or endemic species and molecular methods for characterisation. Detailed studies on life cycle and breeding behaviour, taxonomy, seed biology
3. Population and habitat viability studies
4. Optimising appropriate methods for post-harvest handling, processing and storage.
5. Investigation on quality control standardization and shelf life of raw materials and finished products.
6. Selection and authentication of plant species.
7. Collection of ethnomedical and ethnobotanical data.
8. Developing high yielding varieties.
9. Medium scale plant propagation.
10. Chemical studies on plant constituents
11. Analytical studies on quantitative assessment of major constituents.
12. Pharmacological and toxicological studies
13. Pilot plant scale processing of plant extracts.
14. Standardisation of extracts.
15. Formulation studies on extracts into dosage forms for new products.

• IPR & Related issues

Medicinal plants represent not only a valuable part of Bhutan’s biodiversity but are also a source of great traditional health knowledge. The biodiversity and the wealth of traditional knowledge systems of the poorer countries has always attracted the researchers from the developed countries and knowledge-rich multinational companies. Some may argue that the access to such biodiversity and traditional knowledge by the developed nations is necessary for the greater welfare of mankind as this facilitates developing new products which ultimately benefit the whole world. However, the poor countries and the local community seldom gets proportionate benefits from such commercial exploitation of their natural resources and intellectual properties.

The existing IPR systems in the world are centered around the concept of private ownership whereas the biodiversity and traditional knowledge are collective creation by a nation or community, therefore private ownership of such material and knowledge for commercial use without the fair benefit sharing arrangements are clear violation of rights.

Many times, wrong patents are given in the area of medicinal plants : the cases of patents grant to inventors in USA for Turmeric (Curcuma longa), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Jamun (Syzygium cumini), Karela (Momordica charantia) which were revoked later by continuous and often lengthy persuasion by Government of India could be referred for example. It must be understood that the patent offices in various countries do make mistakes in checking the novelty of an invention because they usually look at their own databases. So the chances of issuing wrong patents are expected especially when an application based on the indigenous knowledge is being examined in a foreign country. The knowledge which may be in public domain in one country may be a new knowledge to other country. Therefore, it is desired that   traditional knowledge rich country like Bhutan must make their common knowledge available to the Patent offices of other countries, so as to protect their products and knowledge under IPR.

5. Recommendations and conclusion

5.1  MAP Conservation strategies

• Field gene bank needs to be created at least one each in high, mid and low altitude areas. (Long Term)
• In-situ conservation is the best and cost effective method. A few in-situ conservation areas have to be marked and declared as MAP in-situ areas in the forests. (Short Term)
• Identification of forest areas rich in MAPs and bringing policy frame work for intensive management of sustainable harvesting in those areas. (Short Term)
• Categorization of MAPs for their Rare Endangered and Threatened status. (Short Term)
• Services of a qualified taxonomist may be initiated for proper identification of MAP species of trade interest to remove existing confusion in species name of some of the (Short Term)
• Ex-situ conservation by domestication of highly explored species from the forest. (Short Term)

5.2  Strategies for resource utilization

• Empowering the local community and building their capacity in Good Collection Practices for sustainable harvesting. (Short Term)
• Introduction of Good Agricultural Practices for cultivated species. (Short Term)
• Adopting a promotional strategy to inform the world community regarding availability of MAP raw material in Bhutan which adheres to GACP norms and which could fit well to produce high quality herbal drugs using Good Manufacturing Practices (Short Term)
• Low volume is a problem in Bhutan because of small holding, therefore, cultivation may be organized with cluster approach in a community. (Short Term)
• Mechanism may be developed for procuring raw drugs from doorsteps of the growers. Food Corporation of Bhutan could also organize collection, auction and export of MAPs from small individual farmers as is currently pursued for the Cordyceps and Cardamom in southern region. More MAPs could be identified for such trading arrangement.  (Long Term)
• For price stabilization and market assurance, contract farming may be promoted considering the demand and supply chain. (Long Term)
• For cultivation, varieties available in neighbouring countries may directly be introduced for adaptive trials. And after assessing the performance for two years such varieties could be distributed to the farmers eg. Aonla. (Short Term)
• At least one quality analysis laboratory may be created with modern analytical facilities such as HPTLC, HPLC, LC-MS/MS, GC-MS/MS etc –Annexure 4 . (Long Term)
• The quality lab should have a qualified phyto-chemist. (Long Term)

5.3  Researchable issues

• Medicinal plants are scientifically identified, described and sustainably utilized for the benefit of Bhutanese people
• Proper identification of Zanthoxylum species of trade interest and selection of high yielding superior quality fruit producing tree from existing collections. (Short Term)
• Standardization of vegetative propagation protocols for Aonla, Zanthoxylum, etc. (Short Term)
• Ex-situ production of elite seedling/ seeds of selected species for cultivation in the community forest area. (Mid Term)
• Land use planning for getting high quality produce from the right location (e.g. Lemongrass). (Mid Term)
• Plus tree (superior plant type of tree species) selection from the diversity. (Long Term)
• Population assessment important species harvested from the forests in large quantities for formulating sustainable collection strategy. (Long Term)
• Project development for external funding for basic research in selected MAP species. (Short Term)

5.4  Value Addition

• Extraction of essential oil from Carum curvi-(Short Term)
• One or two products have to be highlighted for international market having Bhutan advantage. This needs a market survey- (Long Term)
• Diversification of Capsicum products by capsaicin production. (Short Term)
• Common facilities for drying, grading, packing and labeling to be created at community level. (Short Term)
• Introduction of solar drier and various other labour saving tools in MAP cultivation. (Short Term)
• Training for farm level essential oil extraction and its fractionation for value addition (Short Term)
• Product development and product diversification may be planned in consultation with various industries consuming MAPs. (Mid Term)
• Introduction of MAP products in schools as food supplements and in Government systems.  (Short  to Mid-Term)

5.5  IPR Related Issues

• Documentation and validation of local traditional health care and Folk health care systems for benefit sharing among the local people having traditional knowledge when there are to be commercialized in future.  (Long Term)
• Development of pharmacopeia (Annexure 9) of Bhutanese traditional health care system for avoiding risks of IPR infringements. (Long Term)

5.6  Policy Intervention

• Phyto-chemical industries may be promoted through policy intervention by the Government for systematic commercial utilization of MAPs. (Long Term)
• The country can promote organic production of aromatic crops and high altitude medicinal plants by introducing group certification which is cost effective. (Long Term)
• Continuity in research is critical. Hence frequent shifting of trained human resources should be discouraged as far as possible in the interest of the MAP sector development. (Long Term)
• Strengthening of revolving fund scheme with business target. (Short Term)
• A National Repository of Crude Drugs along with an excellent herbarium facility having authentic reference samples needs to be established. (Long Term)
• With the recent trends towards the use of herbal and natural products there is a need to popularise some of the Bhutanese products at an international level especially in Europe and USA by participating in international trade shows of herbal products and by showcasing the indigenous products. (Long Term)
• Since women are largely involved in MAPs collection and cultivation, small tools may be imported to reduce the drudgery of women. (Short Term)
• European and U.S. markets may be targeted for better price realization of the MAPs. At present, the markets in India and other neighbouring countries of Bhutan are not yet matured enough for a higher price realization for ‘quality organic produce’ from Bhutan and the market size would be negligible, even if any such opportunity exit.  Moreover, exchange rate of European and US currencies would give better price realization advantage.  (Short Term)

5.7  Human Resource Development

• Human resource development in the MAP based products is very essential. (Long Term)
• Exposure in MAP cultivation could be provided to different community leaders by arranging visit to various MAPs cultivation sites in India. (Short Term)
• DMAPR can provide trainers’ training on various aspects of MAP, if requested by RGOB. (Short Term)

5.8  Institutional linkage

• The Department of Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives and the research centers could be linked more coherently for  identification  of MAPs having potential for cultivation and export that need to be researched.
• The only option to address the negative effects of topography is having a well coordinated arrangement for input supply and lifting of produce among various agriculture agencies, traders and farmers to promote exports of MAPs.
• Till basic structure is created for quality analysis, ICAR/ CSIR from India may be approached for providing support.
• Partnership may be established with some of the foreign manufacturers for marketing of surplus produce.
• Similar partnership may be established for Aromatic essential oil with Essential Oil Association of India  and various other Indian industries as well as NGOs like TERI, India.
• DMAPR may act as knowledge partner on various MAPs  about researchable issues.

5.9  Conclusion

References

1. FAO, 1996a. Non-Wood Forest Products of Bhutan, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok.
2. FAO, 1996b. Fact Sheet, Women in Agriculture, Environment and Rural Production. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok.
3. Forest Products of Bhutan. FAO RAP Publication: 1996
4. Grierson, A. J. C.; Long, D. G. 1983. Flora of Bhutan. Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U. K.
5. Government of India (GOI) 2000. Report of the Task Force on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants, Planning Commission, pp. 175.
6. Gurung, J., 1997. ‘Gender Dimensions in Biodiversity Management: Bhutan and Nepal’ (Unpublished) (accessed through FAO, 1996b)
7. High Altitude Medicinal Plants of Bhutan, 2009, ITMS, Bhutan
8. Low altitude Medicinal Plants of Bhutan, 2009, ITMS, Bhutan
9. Report of the Task Force on conservation and sustainable use of Medicinal plants, Government of India, 2000.
10. RGOB 2009. Medicinal plants phase II: Project BTN/AIDCO/99/0081, 9^th and final progress report, Royal Government of Bhutan.
11. RGOB 2007. Guidelines for medicinal plants growers’ association, Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,Royal Government of Bhutan (RGOB), Bhutan.
12. RGOB 2009. Export of medicinal and aromatic plants (Project: BTN/AIDCO/99/0081)
13. Rosenegger, P., 1998. ‘Annual Report: Bhutan’ (unpublished) FAO/RAP Non-Wood (accessed through FAO, 1996b)
14. Tshering, K. 2009. Agriculture and usages of natural resources in Bhutan. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture Shinshu University 45:33-42.
15. UNDP, 1997. Human Development Report, Oxford University Press, New York.
16. Yangzom, K; Krug, I.; Tshomo, K.; Setboonsarng, S. 2008. Market-based certification and management of Non-Timber Forest Products in Bhutan: Organic Lemongrass Oil, Poverty Reduction, and Environmental Sustainability. ADB Institute Discussion Paper No. 106.

1. Solution Exchange of Bhutan, May 2009. Consolidate reply, Query – Exploring markets for medicinal plants – advice, Accessed at –     http://www.solutionexchange- ConsolidatedReports/cr-se-bhutan-04020901.pdf

Annexure 1

Composition of Study Team

            Team Leader

1. Satyabrata Maiti, Director, Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Anand, Gujarat, India

Team members

2. K. A. Geetha, Senior Scientist, Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Anand, Gujarat, India
3. D. Maity, Associate Professor, Calcutta University, Kolkata, India
4. Ugyen Dorji, Commodity Coordinator, MAP and Spices Program, Horticulture Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Royal Government of Bhutan, Bhutan
5. Tshitila, MAP Specialist, RNR RDC Yusipang, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Royal Government of Bhutan, Bhutan
6. Yoenten Norbu, Forest Officer, Non Wood Forest Products Section, Department of Forest and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Royal Government of Bhutan, Bhutan

Annexure 2

Study tour itinerary

Annexure 3

List of participants in brain storming discussion on MAPs held on 9^th December, 2010 in Bhutan

1. Chencho Norbu, Director, Department of Agriculture (Chairman), RGOB, Bhutan
2. Satyabrata Maiti, Director, Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Gujarat, India
3. K. A. Geetha, Senior Scientist, Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Gujarat, India
4. D. Maity, Associate Professor, Calcutta University, Kolkata, India
5. Ugyen Dorji, Commodity Coordinator, MAP and Spices Program, Horticulture Division, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
6. Tshitila, MAP Specialist, RNR RDC Yusipang, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
7. Yoenten Norbu, Forest Officer, Non Wood Forest Products Section, Department of Forest and Park Services, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
8. Ugyen Dendup, Head, Production and Processing Unit, Institute of Traditional Medicine Services, Ministry of Health, RGOB, Bhutan
9. G.B. Chhetri, Agriculture Specialist, DoA, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
10. Kinlay Tshering, Chief Horticulture Officer, Horticulture Division, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
11. Thinlay, Plant Protection Specialist, National Plant Protection Centre, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan,
12. Chimi Rinzin, Chief Agriculture Officer, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
13. Lakey, Sr. Horticulture Officer, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
14. Wangda Dorji, Officer –In –charge, Research and Development Centre, Bhur, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
15. Sonam Tashi, Associate Professor, College of Natural Resource, Lobesa.
16. Sonam Pelden, Head, Non-wood Forest Section, Department of Forests and park Services, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan.
17. Tashi Tshering, Marketing Officer, Department of Agriculture Marketing and Cooperatives, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan.
18. Karma Pelden, Research Officer, Research and Development Centre, Yusipang, Bhutan.

Annexure 4

Approximate cost for setting up a quality analysis laboratory

Annexure 5

Cultivars of Aonla (Emblica offcinalis L.) available in India which could be introduced in Bhutan

Annexure 6

List of prioritized Medicinal plant species that needs immediate attention for R&D

Annexure 7

List of prioritized Aromatic plant species that needs immediate attention for R&D

1. Zanthoxylum armatum (Low altitude)
2. Carum curvi (Low altitude)
3. Cymbopogon flexuosus (Low altitude)
4. Dracocephalum tanguticum, D. Wallichi, D. Hemsleyanum (High altitude)
5. Geranium (Low altitude)
6. Pelargonium (Low altitude)
7. Artemisia (Low altitude)
8. Tagetus minuta (Low altitude)
9. Tanacetum nubigenum (High altitude)

Annexure 8

Essential Oil Bearing Plant Resources in Bhutan

Essential oil bearing trees:

Essential oil bearing shrubs:

Essential oil bearing herbs:

Annexure 9

A Annexure 1model of format from Indian Herbal Pharmacopeia

Please see the attached file Adatoda vasica

Annexure 10

List of top 100 Pharmaceutical companies in India (based on export data)

Source: Accessed at http://www.pharmexcil.com/v1/aspx/PharmaCompanies.aspx on 20.01.2011

Annexure 11

MAP species available in forests of Bhutan at different altitudes

(Source: compiled by Dr. D. Maity, Associate Professor, Calcutta University, Kolkata, India-Member of the team)

A Strategic Road Map

for Developing the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Sectors in Bhutan

Prepared by:

Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Research,

Boriavi, Anand, Gujarat, India

Indian Council of Agricultural Research 

Study conducted under: “Organic Production of Under-utilized Medicinal, Aromatic and Natural Dye Plants Programme for Sustainable Livelihoods in South Asia” (GCP/RAS/108/IFA)

Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations

Acknowledgements

The Study team is thankful to FAO for providing the opportunity to intimately go through medicinal, aromatic and dye yielding plant sector of  Royal Government of Bhutan (RGOB) and to understand their strength and weakness of the sector so as to enable the study team to suggest future plan of action. The Study Team also thankfully acknowledge the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi for participating in this programme by allowing DMAPR to take up this work; RGOB for nominating three of the team members; Ministry of Agriculture, RGOB for logistic support as well as arranging discussion with other Government agencies such as ITMS; Mr. Raj  Ganguly, Project Coordinator, FAO for his meticulous planning and also input in improving the draft report; and to Mr. Uygen Dorji, RGOB for his  painstaking efforts in arranging the meeting with all the Govt. agencies as well as drawing the itinerary for visiting different medicinal plant growing areas and logistic arrangement for the same.

Table of contents  

Abbreviations and acronyms

1. Introduction

Human life and knowledge of preserving it as a growing concern must have come into being almost simultaneously. All known ancient civilization of the past -Egyptian, Babylonian, Jewiah, Chinese, Indus-valley etc. had their own glorious and useful systems of medicine and health care.

According to the ancient books of knowledge, health is considered as a prerequisite for achieving the supreme ends of “Me” consisting of righteousness, wealth, artistic values and spiritual freedom. Preventive and curative aspects of disease are considered as important components of the concept of positive health.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that 80% of the population of developing countries rely on traditional medicine mostly plant drugs, for their primary health care needs. Medicinal plants being natural, having no or little side effect, affordable, preventive and curative therapies which could be useful in achieving the goal of “Primary Health Care for all” in a cost effective manner. The Bhutanese Traditional System of Medicines, predominantly make use of plant based raw material in most of their preparations and formulations. Modern pharmacopoeia also contains at least 25% drugs derived from plants and many others which are synthetic analogues built on prototype compounds isolated from plants.

Demand for medicinal plants is increasing in both developing and developed countries but 100% raw material, except a few, are harvested from wild sources without applying scientific or traditional knowledge of management hence many species are under rare, endangered and threat category to become extinct. Further the loss of habitat for conservation of biodiversity is a growing challenge under climate change scenarios.

The medicinal, aromatic and natural dye plants (MADP) occupy an important position in the socio-cultural, spiritual and livelihood arena of rural people of Bhutan. Looking at the vast forest resources and its diversity, the sustainable management and harvesting could pave a way forward for generating employment, creating additional rural livelihood and enhancing export earnings. However any such intervention needs to be pragmatically planned and delivered for conserving biodiversity and sustaining human and environmental health.

The Royal Government of Bhutan (RGOB) and its various organisations, private and non government organisations (NGOs) have initiated few yet significant activities in these sectors. The RGOB has also encouraged international agencies to further strengthen these initiatives, in past. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MOAF) of RGOB partnered with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of United Nations to implement the International Fund of Agriculture Development (IFAD) funded “Organic Production of Underutilized Medicinal, Aromatic and Natural Dye Plants Programme for Sustainable Livelihoods in South Asia (GCP/RAS/208/IFA)” in Bhutan. Under this project a study of the medicinal, aromatic and natural dye plant (MADPs) sector of Bhutan was planned to suggest a strategic road map to systematically develop these sectors. The FAO entered into an agreement with Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Research (DMAPR) of Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) and requested to lead a high level composite technical team[1] (henceforth ‘Study Team’).

2. Scope, methodology and limitation of the study

The primary purpose of the study was to produce a comprehensive report for MOAF, RGOB that could suggest a strategic roadmap for holistic development of MADP sectors in Bhutan.

The scope of the study included a thorough analysis of the MADP sectors in Bhutan. It included review of the current status and future potential for production, processing and marketing of MADPs in Bhutan; thorough assessment of the cultivation and sustainable wild collection potential of MADPs and its socio-economic impact on the rural community; assessing the current level of infrastructural support in research and development in MADP sector; identifying the critical bottlenecks including legal and policy limitation, if any; and suggesting recommendations to overcome the gaps or challenges. It was also planned that the suggested strategy would be backed by a proper risk assessment including bio-diversity impact, if any.

The scope of the study required a comprehensive primary data and an in-depth value chain analysis. However, due to time limitation, the study methodology failed to adopt a broad based comprehensive approach and relied purposively on primary field observations by sector experts at select locations. High level meetings with key stakeholders and a brainstorming workshop was also conducted to identify and prioritise the major issues concerning the MADP sectors in Bhutan. A thorough analysis of the field observation and primary information collected during the study visit, discussion during the brainstorming session and collected data from secondary sources has been used to synthesize this report.

The study team included three  experts drawn by DMAPR in the field of an Ethnobotany, Plant Breedeing and  Policy planning and three local experts nominated by MOAF in the field of forestry, MAP specialist and administrator which was led by Dr. Satyabrata Maiti, Director, DMAPR (Annexure 1. Composition of study team). The services of a value chain expert could not be availed at the last moment due to administrative reasons. This report has been prepared by the team leader, with inputs received from other team members.

A 12 days study visit to the major production sites and important organizations engaged in MADP sectors in Bhutan was conducted (Annexure 2. Study Tour itinerary). The places of visits were purposively selected by the team members nominated by RGOB, as they had prior experience of working in these sectors. A brainstorming session with key stakeholders was arranged on 9^th December 2010 (Annexure 3. List of participants). Secondary information was collected from various organizations and individuals working in MADP sectors of Bhutan and through internet. 

The   report provides strategic directions in the areas of research & development, production, sustainable collection, value addition and commercialization of MADPs, so that a systematic development of the sectors could be planned. The report also provides information about various organisations and institutions working in India so that appropriate  institutions from  Bhutan, including those from Government, NGO and private sectors engaged in MADP sectors can initiate actions to create linkages.

3. Situational analysis

3.1 Ecology and socio-economic background

Bhutan is one of the of richest phyto-diversity centre within the eastern Himalayas due to its unique geographical position and one of the “Hot-Spot” regions of the world. A wide range of  agro-climatic and ecological conditions have adequately expressed themselves in giving rise to a variety of gene pool, both,  wild and cultivated plant species, which are growing abundantly in this phyto-geographical area, although a large area of Bhutan is still remain botanically unexplored.

A few narrow strips of the plains (the ‘duars’, or where the forests become swampy, the ‘terai’) are overlapping into the mountain and hills of Bhutan. The northern border of Bhutan is the main Himalayan chain on the southern edge of the Tibetan plateau, with several mountain peaks over 6100 m (20,000 ft.). Among these the highest is Kula Kangri 7554 m (24,740 ft.). Between these altitudinal extremes the interior of the country is made up of a series of six major mountain ridges alternating with seven deep river valleys, the Amo Chu/Torsa River, Thimphu Chu/Raidak River, Mo Chu/Sankosh River, Mangde Chu, Bumthang Chu, Kuru Chu and Kulong Chu/Manas River, all of which run roughly from north to south. The mountain ridges extend southwards to varying distances and because of their steepness they have in the past formed important natural barriers. The rivers of Bhutan eventually reach the Brahmaputra river system in the plains of Assam; the four rivers of eastern Bhutan unite into the Manas River before leaving Bhutan. The large rivers, e.g. Mo Chu and Manas, have carved deep valleys far into the interior of the country, and at Punakha and Tashi Yangtsi the valley floor is as low as 1500 m (4900 ft.).Where the main rivers enter the plains the beds are wide and flat with extensive deposition of silt and shingle; in the foothills and again in the northern mountains these rivers are often fast-flowing torrents, cutting through deep gorges. In central Bhutan, as at Thimphu and Bumthang, the valleys are wide and open, the water more slowly flowing, causing deposition of agriculturally valuable alluvium. The main rivers originate in the permanent snow and glaciers of the main Himalayan chain in northern Bhutan, except in eastern Bhutan, where the Kuru Chu and Nyam Jang enter Bhutan from Tibet and Arunachal Pradesh.

• Geology

Most of Bhutan is composed of a complex system of folded and metamorphosed rocks of pre-Cambrian and early Palaeozoic age, largely quartzite and gneiss, and dissected by faults running east – west. Sedimentary rocks are scarce, the oldest being of Devonian age in the Bumthang area, with later deposits in the Upper Mo Chu district (around Lingshi) and in a narrow band along the edge of the Duars and in the Manas basin. The highest peaks of Chomo Lhari, Kula Kangri etc. are formed from granite. Large areas of Bhutan remain as yet unsurveyed in details geologically.

• Climate

Only very limited meteorological data have been assembled for Bhutan and no accurate measurements of precipitation is available. It is clear that the huge range in altitude and diverse physiography produce a wide range of climatic types including great extremes of temperature and precipitation. The most important factor is the hot and humid monsoon air stream blowing northwards from the Bay of Bengal. Throughout the year, but particularly from June to September, this brings heavy rainfall to the foothills and to exposed slopes and valley throughout the interior. The ‘duars’ and foothills enjoy a subtropical climate, warm in winter, hot and extremely humid in summer. Towards the interior the climate becomes gradually more temperate, with cool or cold winters and hot summers and often heavy rainfall. Rainfall is heaviest on the steepest and most exposed slopes, where over 250 cm and possibly up to 500 cm per year may fall. Several main valleys, both at low and high altitude, are extremely dry most of the year and enjoy heavy rain only during the monsoon. Their gentle gradient produces very little direct rainfall (e.g., the Thimphu, Paro and Punakha valleys); their more steeply rising side valleys, receive a much higher rainfall. These dry valleys of the interior become very hot in summer, and very cold in winter (e.g. Paro has 71-76 cm of rain per year, with maximum temperature of 30⁰C in July and minimum of -7⁰C in December). In the mountains of northern Bhutan summers are short and cool, and winters cold with considerable snowfall and frost. The climate is clearly a very important factor governing the types of vegetation throughout Bhutan and accurate meteorological data are highly desirable.

• Population

The World Bank estimated, the Bhutanese population in 2009 at 6,97,335.

Population of Bhutan

• Role of women in Bhutan

(After www.nsbgovt.bt )

• Classification of the vegetation of Bhutan

Based on field experience, floristic composition and altitude the forests of Bhutan can be classified as follows:

1. Subtropical forest

True tropical rain forest does not exist in Bhutan; such forests are largely evergreen and require continuous rainfall throughout the year. The so-called ‘tropical forests’ of the Eastern Himalaya are largely deciduous and have a very seasonal climate with a marked winter dry season and summer wet (monsoon) season. Although they contain many largely tropical genera and species, they lie well outside the tropics and should be considered as subtropical forests. In Bhutan, the forest all along the foothills may be broadly classed as subtropical forest, forming dense jungle on steep slopes and river banks. In accessible areas, much clearing for timber and agriculture has occurred. Sal forest and Savannah forest as described by Gamble are absent, although Sal occurs as scattered trees in the Sarbhang district. Sal forests are found on the terai of Sikkim in India and to the south of Bhutan e.g., in the Siliguri district of India and may formerly have occurred within Bhutan; a small plantation exists at Phuntsholing.

1. Warm broad-leaved forest

This is essentially a type of subtropical forest, but occurs at a higher altitude with a lower rainfall and contains a mixture of evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved tree species. Many of the tropical genera, e.g., Duabanga, Pterospermum and Tetrameles, are absent, and more temperate genera appear. The transition into zones and below is a gradual one. In deeper valleys this formation occurs far into the interior, as in the Kulong Chu valley south of Tashi Yangtsi, 27⁰30^/N. However, it is most abundant throughout southern Bhutan over 1000 m e.g., on the hills N of Gaylegphug and Deothang and in the Shongar Chu Valley, patches of warm broad-leaved forests are often cleared to produce grazing.

iii. Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest

This is a low-altitude xeropytic forest occurring in the deeper dry valleys of Bhutan, viz. Mo Chu/Sankosh River, Kuru Chu and Kulong Chu/Dangme Chu systems. These valleys have a very long dry season during which burning is common, and heavy rain occurs only in the monsoon season when abundant herbs, especially grasses, appear. Grazing is widespread. The pines are resistant to burning but the shrub layer is more susceptible and therefore poorly developed. Almost no other tree species occur. The pines are tapped for turpentine, and the timber used for building; their rarity in some valleys (e.g. at Tashigang) may be due to excessive felling. Such forest is rare in the Darjeeling district of India, but occurs in Sikkim in the Great Rangit and Tista valleys, where it is often mixed with Sal.

1. iv. Cool broad-leaved forest

On moist exposed slopes above the warm broad-leaved forests one of two types of forest usually develops according to rainfall. The drier type contains a dominance of evergreen Castanopsis or Quercus species and is designated Evergreen oak forest. The wetter type, Cool broad forest, is a more mixed forest in which oaks are less common, and other trees, both deciduous and evergreen e.g. Lauraceae, Exbucklandia etc. are more abundant together with dense shrubs, climbers and many epiphytes.   In Bhutan Cool broad-leaved forest is extensive in some eastern districts e.g. around Tshilingor and on the steep hillsides of Sengor.

1. Evergreen oak forest

These forests are a very characteristic feature of some parts of central Bhutan, especially around Tongsa and on the hills above Mongar. They apparently receive a lower rainfall than Warm broad-leaved forests, and composition varies according to altitude and rainfall. At lower levels Castanopsis hystrix and C. tribuloides are often dominant, higher up Quercus lamellose becomes commoner; with increasing dryness more xerophytic Quercus species e.g., Q. lanata, Q. griffithii and Q. semecarpifolia, and sometimes Pinus wallichiana appear. The shrub layer is often poorly represented, whilst the shady humid forest floor is dominated by small herbs e.g., Urticaceae and bryophytes. Felling is mainly to create grazing land and for firewood; the oak forests of Bhutan are little exploited for timber.

1. Blue pine (Pinus wallichina) forest

This is the temperate equivalent of the Chir pine forest and occupies the inner dry valleys of Bhutan where rainfall is very low except during the monsoon season. Unlike Chir pine it is very susceptible to fire. It is best developed in the Ha, Paro and Thimphu valleys in west Bhutan and in the Bumthang and Gyetsa valley in farther east.   In these valleys it is often dominant and acts as a pioneer colonist of burnt or disturbed ground. The only tree species commonly associated is Quercus griffithii but many xerophytic shrubs occur, as do herbs which mostly appear during the monsoon. There is a gradual transition between this and Evergreen oak forest. In the main valleys, where slopes are gentler, most of Blue pine forest has been cleared for cultivation and timber.

vii. Spruce (Picea) forest

Spruce forest, together with the rather similar Hemlock and Fir forests; occupy the montane cloud-forest zone of Bhutan between the temperate broad-leaved forests and the tree-line. Although often two or all three of the dominant elements are mixed with each or with pine, larch, oak, maple, birch etc. separate forests types can frequently be recognized.

Spruce forest is found at a lower altitude than the other two, and is apparently somewhat drier; is more local in distribution but is found in the Thimphu district and is particularly well-developed in the Bumthang district (around Ura and the Ura La). Picea spinulosa is the common dominant species, but in Eastern Bhutan P. brachytyla forms mixed stands with it. Rhododendrons are less frequent than in Hemlock and Fir forests.

viii. Hemlock (Tsuga dumosa) forest

This is similar to Spruce forest but appears to require a higher precipitation, which results both from mist condensation and a high rainfall, but no precise data are available. Shrubby and arborescent rhododendrons are frequent and the high humidity is ideal for dense growth of epiphytic and terrestrial ferns, lichens and bryophytes. Roadsides, landslips and cleared areas are often colonized by dense bamboo thickets. Mixed stands with the other montane conifers are common. In Bhutan, Hemlock forest is common on the main mountain ridges below the Fir forests, throughout the central and northern parts of the country.

1. Fir (Abies densa) forest

Fir forest is characteristics of the highest forested ridges throughout Bhutan, where huge tracts are covered by virtually no other three species, apart from hemlock and birch in places. The dense canopy provides a humid environment for a luxuriant understory of Rhododendron and other shrubs, and the mossy ground layer supports many small herbs, e.g. Primula species and Bryocarpum himalaicum. As the tree-line is approached, at around 3600-3800 m, the firs become more stunted and are mixed with junipers and smaller Rhododendron species. As in Hemlock forest, in addition to the high rainfall, considerable mist-precipitation must derive from the frequent cloud cover. In parts of Bhutan areas of Fir forest have been cleared for cultivation and grazing; these areas if abandoned could be rapidly colonized by bamboos.

1. Juniper/Rhododendron scrub

This moist scrub vegetation occurs above the tree line throughout Northern and Central Bhutan. Typically it consists of scattered shrubs of Juniperus, Rhododendron and Potentilla arbuscula but with a rich herb layer appearing during the monsoon season. Damp grassy meadows are commonly found in this zone and more extensive grasslands may result from a long history of grazing. No detailed meteorological or ecological data are available for this vegetation, which is floristically extremely rich and contains many plants much prized in horticulture.

1. Dry alpine scrub

This is a more xerophytic vegetation found at higher altitudes than the moist Juniper/Rhododendron scrub, and probably is widespread in Northern Bhutan and on the higher ridges of Central Bhutan (e.g., on the Black Mountain). The precise extent of its distribution and exact composition are unknown. It is clearly allied to the steppe vegetation of Tibetan plateau of which genera such as Caragana, Chesneya and Ephedra are characteristic.

• Agriculture

Agriculture is the dominant employment (43.6%) and main livelihood (80%) source. It contributes 22.3% (Data Released on 2010) of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), of which about 8% come from livestock and 7% from forestry.   At the macro-economic level, Bhutan is doing extremely well with an average GDP growth rate of 6 % over last two decades (Tshering, 2009). The GDP in 2010 (estimate) is over US$ 1.397 billion with a per capita GDP of US $2042, one of the highest in the South Asia (Global Finance Data Base, 2010).

However, agriculture development is also constrained with many factors. Firstly, the limited arable land (7.8% of the total land area) is further coupled with the loss of some of the most productive agricultural lands to urban development. Secondly, most agricultural lands are scattered around small, remote settlements on hill slopes and valley bottoms. Thus a limited access to markets is coupled with a low potential for mechanization. Thirdly, the proneness to natural disaster (monsoon floods and landslides) further marginalizes the highly integrated, diverse and labor-intensive farming systems. Fourthly, the rural population has to make a living on an average income of less than half of that of the urban population (Bhutan Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2004) leading to rural urban migration and thus creating shortages of labour and subsequently increasing the cost of production of agricultural goods. There is, therefore, an urgent need to intensify agriculture production

Although agricultural development is slowly changing the face of rural Bhutan, it is still overwhelmingly characterized by subsistence agriculture with high demand for labour and low levels of productivity. Crop production, livestock and forestry activities are closely interrelated and interdependent. Crops account for a 20% share of GDP, livestock for 8% and forestry for 9% of GDP (UNDP 1997). More than 80% of the population depends upon agriculture and animal husbandry for their livelihood (FAO, 1996b).

The gender division of tasks in agriculture is not very clear in Bhutan. While some tasks are generally allocated by gender, others may be performed by both men and women, and men and women can to a large extent take over from each other. Bhutanese women are usually engaged in firewood collection, crop cultivation, vegetable gardening, yak herding, traditional weaving using vegetal dyes and other handicraft making. Men, by tradition, are engaged in ploughing, construction, trading and other business or manual activity (Gurung, 1997). The division of labour by gender also differs between ethnic groups, so that it is most pronounced among Lotshampas, and least among Sharchopas. Women in Bhutan have traditionally been involved in activities related to housekeeping, agriculture, animal husbandry and cottage industry, and would appear to play an important role equal to men in rural economics. But in all ethnic groups it is men’s task to plough the fields with oxen.

Unlike most other South Asian countries, Bhutanese society is mainly matriarchal and women have equal status to men not only in the eye of the law but also in the home. Land ownership in Bhutan is officially registered by gender and it appears to be gender-biased in favour of women. Women own 70% of the land. This pattern holds true in the ownership of the livestock as well. Most decisions are made jointly by women and men and in many areas such as spending of money earned from kitchen gardening and farm labour, women are free to decide independently.

Most cultivation in Bhutan occurs in the inner populated temperate valleys of the central belt, where rice and cereals are most widely grown. Although dry, these valleys yield good crops on account of the high summer temperature and plentiful irrigation water from the rivers. In this belt, e.g. in the Ha, Paro, Thimphu and Bumthang valleys, considerable forest clearing has occurred for agriculture. In the warm temperate and subtropical zones, agriculture is less extensive and frequently occupies smaller areas of cleared forest. Throughout Bhutan terracing of the hillsides is utilized to increase the area of cultivated ground.

• Forestry

Bhutan’s forests are among the most important remains of natural Eastern Himalayan forests. They are characterized by exceptional biological diversity and Bhutan is considered one of the world’s ten most important “hot spots”. Forest in Bhutan is state owned, but rural people have traditional user rights for grazing, collection of fuel wood and non-wood forest products, and thus the forest is an important resource base for the rural communities. Forests provide over 90% of the domestic fuel in the rural areas as well as timber for rural housing and farm buildings (Rosenegger, 1998). Forests also play an important role in food security in Bhutan. Food from the forests becomes critical to the rural areas when transporting food to these areas is difficult, when people do not have money to buy food and when there is crop failure. Non-agricultural activities are a significant source of livelihood for rural people, who form 75% of the population. Of the non-agricultural activities collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are amongst the most important livelihood activities in rural communities of Bhutan. This is evident from the array of NTFP based items (cooking utensils, containers, food products, medicine) that exist in Bhutanese farmhouses. Quantities and number of sellers of NTFP based food and non-food products in the vegetable markets in urban areas show that NTFPs are an important source of income for farmers. However, due to the lack of adequate quantitative data on the benefits of NTFPs, it is difficult to determine statistically how important NTFPs are for the lives of rural farmers. Among the few quantitative studies, a study conducted in western Bhutan found that NTFPs account for 21% of the household diet and 19% of household income (Namgyel P, 1996).Bhutan’s forests contain a wealth of NTFPs. In  southern Bhutan, 120 species were identified, including 22 edible mushrooms, 4 tea plants, 13 medicinal plants, 15 vegetables, as well as edible oil plants, dyes, cane,  bamboo, fruits, incense, yeast and gum (Namgyel P, 2005). Of the large variety of products used by local people, only a few are

traded on a commercial basis.Fuel wood and water collection is often undertaken by women. However, men sometimes take on fuel wood and water collection, and even child care. House-husbands are common in many communities in Bhutan (Gurung, 1997). Heavy work like felling trees for house construction is done by men. Mushroom collection provides a sizeable income to many women and their families. About 45% of the medicinal plants collectors are women. Some have even traditionally been involved in cultivating and harvesting medicinal plants (Gurung, 1997).

Forestry is a comparatively new industry in Bhutan. Due to its complex geography and topography, only about 7.8% of Bhutan’s land area has been cleared for agriculture (Yangzom, 2008), rest under forest and much of it is completely undisturbed by man. Most forest clearance has been in the southern sub-tropical belt for export to India and in the central belt around towns and villages. Legislation has been introduced to protect these forests and the Forest Department has developed a vigorous forest survey and management policy with selective felling and replanting of important timber species.

3.1.8 Environment

The environment in Bhutan is still relatively intact. This is partly due to the recent start of the development process, and partly to the high priority given to environmental sustainability and conservation by the Royal Government of Bhutan. The Government has declared its firm intention to maintain a 60% forest cover and 26% in the form of protected areas, even at the cost of economic opportunities foregone. Moreover, the Buddhist philosophy of love and respect to nature has greatly influenced people’s attitude to the environment.

People in Bhutan live in harmony with nature in a symbiotic relationship that goes back to untold centuries. The rural community’s relationship with environment is reflected in the abundant use of various kinds of plants for medicine, essential and vegetable oil, traditional paper, natural vegetable dyes, etc. Domesticated ornamental plants are widely known to Bhutan’s rural folk. For the various ethnic groups livelihood strategies in the mountains depend largely on their knowledge and management of its diverse genetic resources. Women provide much of the labour for natural resource management which sustains the family (Ehsan, 1993; Shrestha, 1997; Thapa, 1997). Seed management is one particular area of women’s work which is of great significance to biodiversity. Women have traditionally been the custodians of crop germplasm and their diversity for generations. As women play a leading role in the fields as well as in communities they are in position to gather new varieties through farmer-to-farmer exchanges (Gurung, 1997).

Even so, emerging environmental problems like degradation of forests close to settlements cause longer working hours for the rural people, as they have to walk longer distances to collect fuelwood. These emerging problems may not be gender-biased, though.

• Floristic wealth of Bhutan

Bhutan encompasses enormous floristic diversity with the different species of Saxifragas, Primulas, Rhododendrons, Orchids, Impatiens, Pedicularis and a number of medicinal plants, horticultural plants and the taxa of ethnobotanical interest.  Till date about 4334 species under 1411genera belongs to 242 families are reported from Bhutan, of which 8 families, 14 genera and 21 species are of naked seeded plants. The genus Saxifraga is represented by as many as 66 species which is the highest species containing genus among the flowering plants of the country. Among the total flowering plant species there are about 2700 herbs, 892 shrubs, 532 trees and 210 climbers (Flora of Bhutan, 1983).

Eastern Himalayan region being a centre of active speciation this country also harbours more than 100 endemic taxa.

3.2 Medicinal  Aromatic Plant Wealth in Bhutan

Bhutan is home to approximately 4334 species of plants out of the 50000 endemic plant species thriving in global hot spots of the world.  Bhutan has been identified as one of the 10 global hotspots of ecological diversity of the world.  There are about 82 endemic plant species discovered in Bhutan. More than 600 species of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are reported to be growing in Bhutan. Besides, there are numerous fungal and parasitic flora with medicinal values thriving in the remote terrains of the country. These plant treasures have earned for Bhutan its historical I The global picture name “the land of medicinal herbs” (Ref.: Project Report: BTN/AIDCO/99/0081, RGOB).

In Bhutan MAPs are essential parts of traditional health care system. Amongst the Bhutanese people, MAPs evoke a spontaneous interest to meet the heath and religious need. gSo-ba Rig-pa, a traditional practice of curing ailments involves the use of MAPs. The gSo-ba Rig­pa distinguishes medicines according to their source. The Sgo­sman- medicines are those obtained from high altitude plants, the Khrog­sman medicines are those obtained from low altitude plants and Rtsi­sman are those obtained from extracts of plant resins and minerals. Others are also the rdo­man, Rin-po-che-sman, Sa-sman etc depending on the source and extraction processes.

In recent years, MAPs have been recognized as a source of significant livelihood especially to the rural poor as they provide cash income, medicines and supplementary nutrition. There has also been an upsurge of global demand for MAPs (EU Project Peport:BTN/AIDCO/99/0081). Conservative estimates put the monetary value of MAP-related global trade at over 60 billion USD (Govt. of India, 2000). With increasing popular demand for MAPs, both in South Asia and internationally, this trade is expected to grow to 5 trillion by the year 2050 (FRLHT, 1996). The increasing demand of these MAPs both globally and locally has provoked the supply markets to stretch creating a hoard of environmental, social, legal and technical problems.

A significant offshoot of the increasing demand for medicinal plant in Bhutan is the birth of networks of illegal traders in the region resulting in over exploitation of these plants. This has threatened the sustainability of the alpine ecosystem. The expansion of unregulated trade and commercial use of MAPs poses a major threat to biodiversity in the region. Local communities tend to collect the highest value or most popular plant species, leading to over-harvesting or species extinction. The threat is also compounded by the ever increasing expansion of agricultural lands and increasing herds of cattle feeding on the sub alpine pastoral lands.

The government is adequately alert to these situations. Sufficient energy and drive has been put to address these issues. Government policies and plans are beginning to take shape. MAPs are now considered potential resources for uplifting rural economy and generating employment for the unemployed youth. MAPs are also considered as a bridge between sustainable economic development, affordable health care and conservation of lifeline of Bhutan, bio-diversity. Policies and plans to harness the optimum potential MAPs are beginning to establish its roots and bearing fruits.

3.3 Ethno-medicine

As the ethnic communities of Bhutan are traditionally using the plant resources for their food, shelter and for health care as medicinal uses, they have rich traditional knowledge of wild plants as the natural resources for their food, shelter, medicines, fodder, dye, fibre etc.  Bhutan is a cornucopia of ethnic people and they live in the fringe areas of the country and almost entirely depend on the forest resources.

The local health practitioner known as  “medicine man” is well trained up about the identity of medicinal plants. They harvest the plants and prescribe those for treatment after proper processing and often properly store these material for future uses. They use these plants or plant parts / products to cure the diseases like bodyache, toothache, stomachache, joints pain, breast pain, fever, cold and cough, diarrhea and dysentery, cut and wounds, nasal bleeding, skin treatment, menstrual disorder, throat pain, bone fracture, leprosy, heart diseases, arthritis, gastric impaction, piles, vomiting, urinary track infection, hydrocyl, liver disorder, expectorant, anathematic, constipation, antiseptic, obesity, excessive seminal discharge, constipation, jaundice, to increase sexual potency,  asthma, food poisoning, snake bite, rheumatism etc. which are very common local health problems. According to an estimation more than 600 medicinal plant species are being reported from the country (Ref: RGOB: Project:BTN/AIDCO/99/0081).

3.4 Policy and Legal Instruments available in RGOB

1. National Forestry Policy of Bhutan, 1974: This policy protects the land, forest, soil, water resources and biodiversity against degradation such as loss of fertility, ecological damages etc. and allows harvesting of Medicinal plants according to conservation and management plans in order to protect it from ecological damages and total extinction of the species.
2. Forest and nature Conservation Act of Bhutan, 1995: This Act is to ensure an adequate supply of basic forest products to meet the needs of the population with due recognition of the multiple responsibilities for forest resources and their sustainable management and use.  Medicinal plants are recognized as a commodity that can be harvested for economic usage by the community. The concerned government agencies need to provide information on resource availability and management plan for each species.

• The Biodiversity Act of Bhutan, 2003: The Act safeguards genetic resources especially from bio-prospecting and export of genetic resources. It protects traditional knowledge and defines requirements for access permits. Through this Act, a rationalized collection, cultivation and trading process of MAPs should be established. One entity should be interface between the authorities and the farmers, traders, cultivators for all the processes related to MAPs.

1. Forest and nature Conservation rules of Bhutan, 2006: A group of at least ten households willing to establish, control and manage a forest area as a community forest in accordance with these rules can form a community forest management group (CFMG). The CFMG is authorised under the rules to control the management of the community forest in accordance with the forest management plan. A community of farmers can form a group under this rule and cultivate or collect medicinal plants from the forest. Cooperatives of MAP farmers are encouraged to take up MAPs collection, cultivation and trading.

3.5 Role of Traditional Bhutanese Medical System in promoting MAPs

China has “Chinese Medicine”, India has “Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha” as Indian System of Medicines (ISM), similarly  Traditional Bhutanese Medicine (TBM) is the  ancient health care system of Bhutan which is providing affordable healthcare in the remote villages where accessibility even today is not only difficult but also time consuming.  One great strength and success behind the TBM is the availability and supply of so many unique, endemic, high altitude medicinal plants that can take care not only primary health care need but also provide cure for large number of chronic diseases.

• Commercial outfit of Bhutan dealing with MAPs

• Institute of Traditional Medicine Services (ITMS): is a research and development organization engaged in production and supply of drugs of g.so-ba-rig-pa tradition of Bhutan. There are three functional units under the ITMS as follows:

1. National Traditional Medicine Hospital is responsible for the development and provision of quality traditional medical care including different therapies. It is headed by the Superintendent and there are 8 Drungtshos (Traditional Physicians) working in this hospital.
2. National Institute of Traditional Medicine is headed by the Principal and is responsible for development of human resources required for the traditional medicine services. Five Drungtshos are working in the Institute as lecturers.
3. Pharmaceutical and Research Unit is responsible for the manufacturing and production of medicines, conducting quality control for both raw materials and finished products, carrying out research activities and marketing of the products. The unit is headed by a Pharmacist In-charge.

Although the Bhutanese traditional medical texts described about 2000 ingredients, out of which ITMS usages about 267 raw material  including 201 medicinal plants for production of 98 medicines. Therefore, it is very important that the medicinal plants are scientifically identified, described and sustainably utilized for the benefit of Bhutanese people for their health and livelihood.

3.6.2 Bio Bhutan: is a pioneer enterprise that produces and markets natural and organic certified products from Bhutan for Bhutanese and international markets. The company sources all the raw materials from farmer groups living in well defined areas scattered across the country. Processing of the products is carried out by the farmer groups under the supervision of Bio Bhutan. Final value addition and packaging is carried out by Bio Bhutan and sold at local, regional and international markets.

Currently, there is no certification expertise within the country. Hence, foreign expertise through a certification agency   of India  has been engaged for the time being.  The company has well established links with Bio Inspecta (Switzerland) and its partner organization INDOCERT, an Indian Certification agency .   INDOCERT follows EU Standards and Regulations for organic products. The company also initiated the certification of three products in 2005, and organic certificates have been obtained for two of them (lemon grass oil and Pipla: Piper longrum; P. nigrum) in January, 2006 from INDOCERT-an Indian certification agency.

The company has also established marketing links with customers in India, USA, Singapore, Switzerland, UK and Luxury Hotels and Shops in Bhutan. Promotion of Bio Bhutan are carried out through their website www.biobhutan.com., advertisements in the local television, newspaper, Druk Air in-flight magazine and in business travel directory of Bhutan.

Currently, bio-Bhutan markets products like:

• Herbal tea
• Ginger tea
• Turmeric
• Ginger
• Honey
• Cordyceps sinensis Gift Pack
• Organic certified lemon grass oil
• Lemon grass spray
• Organic certified pipla

Bio Bhutan is also exploring opportunities for trading organic ginger, processed fruits, Chirayata (Swertia chirayita), buckwheat, Ruta (Saussurea lappa), red rice, Bhutanese herbal bath and herbal tea.

• National Women’s Association of Bhutan (NWAB): was established on 9th April, 1981 by the 33rd resolution passed by the 53rd session of the National Assembly. It was first established as an NGO and discharged with the responsibility to promote socio economic conditions of women throughout the country.

The primary role of the association was structured on the forward looking strategies for the advancement of women adopted at the UN conference in Nairobi in 1985 and the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW). In 1990 NWAB was identified as the national body dedicated to the advancement of women. NWAB is currently registered with the UN as national machinery for the advancement of women.

It promotes the socio-economic conditions of the disadvantaged women through promotion of economic opportunities, development of capability and raising awareness of the women rights and potentials. Currently the association is involved in the MAPs cultivation’ at Trongsa, Shitake Mushroom collection, and Ginger cultivation in four districts of central and south east districts of Bhutan.

3.7 Role of European Union (EU) Medicinal Plant Project

The EU Medicinal Plant Project was in operation in the country in Phase I and Phase II. This was the longest project in operation in Bhutan on Medicinal Plants. The project has contributed immensely to revive the and put the Bhutanese Traditional  Medicine (BTM) on a modern delivery system by product development in the form of tablets, capsules, syrups, etc. It has demonstrated the need of supply chain having upstream, midstream and downstream regulations. The activities of the project were:

1. Mapping of range and population of selected wild species
2. Research into plant domestication

• Monitoring activities for market channelization

1. Establishment of village associations
2. Implementation of medicinal plants cultivation programme
3. Market surveys and audits of export markets

• Market development and diversification
• Development of strategic partnerships and contract manufacturing

1. Market testing of new products
2. Improvement of existing products dosage and product technology
3. Scientific validation and therapeutic claims

• New product development
• Reorientation of R & D Lab
• Establishment of commercial pricing system

1. Marketing skills, capacity building and organizational enhancement

• Development and Implementation of the MIS package
• Expending of production and storage area & proving the production conditions
• Assisting evolution of PRU as a commercial entity
• Improve operational efficiency

1. Institution of a quality management system through GMP training workshop and conducting stability studies of Traditional Medicine

• Training of farmers, collectors and extension staff
• Participation in regional and / international conferences
• Training in marketing and TM product development
• Training in quality assurance, research and production through training of pharmacy technicians, training in Pharmacognosy/ Pharmaceutical sciences, occupational health and safety, equipment handling and maintenance, financial and business management, project accounting and financial management, etc.

The project has tried to encompass all the value chains of Bhutanese Traditional Medicine within the project period. However, continuity of the activities created in the project needs to be assured in future for harvesting the fruits of the good efforts.

3.8 Current activities in Collection, cultivation and marketing of MAPs

Bhutan has only a few MAP species under cultivation. Majority of the MAPs are in the wild. No concerted effort has been made to cultivate MAPs. Presently, some MAPs species are under various stages of research in different agriculture research centers.

There are only a handful of farmers who cultivate MAPs for commercial purposes. The National Women’s Association of Bhutan has organized several farmers to cultivate Inula helenium (manu), Carum curvi, Zanthoxylum armatum and Saussurea lappa (ruta). A few farmers in Bumthang are also engaged in the cultivation of these two species.

The remote areas of the country are also the habitation for most MAPs. It is presently the poor indigenous people who are dependent on the MAPs for a portion of their livelihood. The 10th Plan with poverty alleviation as the central theme envisages that more remote communities to benefit the most out of the trade in MAPs. Most of the rural communities who depend on MAPs for a significant portion of their livelihood are actually collectors. They collect MAPs from the wild and generate cash income from the trade in MAPs. Most of their collected MAPs are sold at auctions organized by the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) for Cordyceps, to ITMS or local incense factory for other MAPs. Similarly, in Kalapang village community collection and processing of Emblica officinalis has been in operation for last few years. The produce is mainly consumed by the ITMS. The collection area possesses the following resource as informed by Mr. Pema Dendup, GFEO Saling Gewog.

Table: Data on population distribution of Amla at Kalapang area

3.8.1  Demand and Supply Position of MAPs in Bhutan

The major demand of MAP comes from Institute of Traditional Medicine Services and small scale incense factories present in Bhutan. A little quantity is also consumed by the local practitioners as well as Priests of various monasteries.

In addition to pharmaceutical use some quantity of essential oil is used for toiletries and soap making industries. Although ITMS usages about  species of plants  for their drugs preparation, quantity consumption is very low and met by small farmers for certain species and by local collators.  Major impediment of the sector is lack of volume both in internal consumption as well as export demand at present.

3.8.2 Marketing

At present a sizable volume of only three MAPs are traded within the country. Most of the MAPs are sold for home consumption. The Institute of Traditional Medicine is increasingly becoming a consumer for most MAPs cultivated and collected in the country. Generally within the country these MAPs are used for religious ceremonies as well as for medicines. About 250 plants are used commonly by the traditional practitioners of the Gso-ba-rig-pa system of medicine. Historically the local people have been engaged in the use and take care of MAPs. Therefore the local and traditional knowledge of MAPs are very rich, which created an interest to rise momentum  in the trade of MAPs.

MAPs are exported from Bhutan through both formal and informal marketing channels. Knowledge on informal export is limited but popularly the trading takes place across the Indian borders. There are also instances where people hand carry the plants to countries like Singapore, Thailand, Hongkong and Taiwan. MAPs exported Under the formal export arrangement include such as lemon grass oil, mushroom species, Cordyceps, Chirayata, Pipla and Rubia. No systematic study has so far been carried out to measure the export potential of the Bhutanese MAPs. However, many private individuals and entrepreneurs are showing interest to export MAPs.  Cordyceps is visibly one of the most exported MAPs in the recent years which is now exported to   eight countries. Large quantities of Inula helenium (manu) and Saussurea lappa (ruta) are cultivated and are used locally for medicinal purposes either at the ITMS or by the villagers themselves. There is good scope for the cultivation of more MAPs and for developing MAPs industry that could generate employment for a large number of people and also earn foreign exchange. Some 300 plants, mostly found in Bhutan   and some imported such as Saraca indica and Santalum album, as well as minerals and few animal parts are used to produce 98 herbal health care items and 8 other items of nutriceuticals, incense, herbal tea, etc.

The Agricultural Marketing Services is engaged to look into the marketing aspects of all agricultural produce viz. agriculture, horticulture, livestock and non-wood forest products across the country.  Marketing has a crucial role to play not only in realizing the national goals of increasing rural income, generating employment opportunities and attaining national food security but also in shaping a vibrant modern agriculture sector consistent with the national vision and people’s aspirations. At present Agriculture Marketing Service is aiming at the following programmes:

• Market Research & Development Program
• Market Information Systems Development Program
• Agribusiness and Trade Promotion Program
• Marketing Extension Programs & Farmers Group Formation
• Market Infrastructure Development Program

Bhutan’s marketing system is characterized by the high transportation costs which result in very high selling prices. The predominant historical reliance on India and Bangladesh as major export markets also contributes to the narrow export market for Bhutan. Bhutan’s international trade is solely reliant on the Kolkata port in India and the Druk Air, its national airlines with flights only to India, Nepal and Thailand.

3.9 Emerging Scenario in World Trade of MAPs

Export opportunities of natural products are tremendous, as the world market is looking towards natural sources for the purposes of therapeutic use as well as nutritional dietary supplements. The global herbal remedies market can be classified into five strategic areas as follows:

• Phyto-Pharmaceuticals – the plant derived drugs containing compounds used to treat diseases, isolated pure active compounds
• Medicinal Botanicals / Botanical Extracts / Herbal or Dietary Supplements-the whole plant or plant-part extracts, (either whole extracts or standardised extracts) used for maintenance of health by affecting a body structure and its function
• Nutraceuticals – the foods containing supplements from natural (botanical) sources, that deliver a specific health benefit, including prevention and treatment of disease
• Cosmeceuticals – the cosmetic products which contain biologically active ingredients (of botanical origin) having an effect on the user
• Herbal raw material

Herbal raw material market is very large but no definite estimates are available till date to quantify its size in dollar terms. The principal suppliers however to this market are the developing countries who collect the raw material mainly through wild sources.

Immense opportunities for Bhutan MAP industries exists in the global market in view of its value added clean herbal resources from undisturbed ecology. Bhutan needs to exploit the international market on a much larger and organised scale than what it is doing presently.

3.10  Emerging scenario in neighbouring India

 Unsustainable ways of harvesting and unrestricted marketing have led to the reduction in population of some of the high demand medicinal plants leading to sudden escalation in prices of these crude drugs in the market. AVS, Kottakal, informs that it is unable to get sufficient raw drugs of Saussurea lappa, Aconitum heterophyllum, Trichosanthes cucumerina (Jangli Padwal) and Coscinium fenestratum for use in their pharmacies. Bharat Ayurvedic Stores, Lucknow, informed that  Asparagus adscendens,  Orchis latifolia and Anacyclus pyrethrum are in short supply. In addition, Hedychium spicaturn, Aconitum heterophyllum and Pterocarpus santalinus are also reported to be in short supply by Gufic Healthcare, Mumbai.   Similar is the case with Coptis teeta, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum emodi, Rauwolfia serpentina, Embelia ribes, Gloriosa superba, etc. (GOI, 2000)

Recognising the trend, many large pharmacies like Dabur, Zandu, Himalaya drugs, AVS Kottakal, Shree Dhootpapeshwar etc., have started promoting contract farming of medicinal plants to meet their demand. The  pharmaceutical industries like Cipla, Natural remedies, Core Health Care, Cadila Health Care, Bio-Ved Pharma etc., who specialise in production of a few speciality drugs/chemicals from plant sources are also involved in contractual cultivation to supplement their requirements. These companies enter into buy-back arrangements with the growers and employ modern product standardisation techniques. Established traders of crude drugs also feel that promotion of cultivation of medicinal plants is a step in right direction.

Growing popularity of herbal medicines in health care systems and the trend of increase in their export demand are quite apparent. Estimated figures indicate 15 -20% growth of Indian pharmaceutical concerns per year. Figures projecting global trade in medicinal plant species indicate a steep upward trend in near future. According to the World Bank report 1998 world trade in medicinal plants and related products is expected to be of the order of US $ 5 trillion by   2050.

Unrestricted exploitation of crude drugs from natural sources without proper measures of conservation have brought the natural medicinal plant wealth of the country to a situation where twenty six species have become endangered, seven species on the verge of extinction and ten to threatened status. This calls for urgent measures for in-situ and ex-situ conservation of such species coupled with cultivation for sustained development of growing herbal drug industry. Policy intervention and support is, therefore, urgently needed for conservation and to encourage and facilitate investments into commercial cultivation of medicinal plants

3.11 Major issues in MAP sector development

4. Key areas of intervention

4.1 Species prioritization

One of the significant efforts made by RGOB for prioritizing MAPs was the stakeholder workshop organized by the Ministry of Agriculture on November, 16, 2007. Stakeholder representatives included various agencies such as the MoA, private sector and the NGOs.

Worksop finalized the following species for commercial utilization

1. Aconitum heterophyllum/lacinatum (Tsendhug)
2. Acorus calamus (Chudala)
3. Carim curvi (Carraway)
4. Cordyceps sinensis (Yartsa guenbup)
5. Cymbopogon spp. (Lemon grass)
6. Illicium griffithi
7. Picrorhiza scrophulariifolia (Hong-Ien)
8. Saussurea lappa (Ruta)
9. Swertia chirayita
10. Aquilaria malaccensis (Agar wood)
11. Ellettaria cardamom (Sugmyel)
12. Piper longum (Pipla long)
13. Piper nigrum (Pipla short)
14. Piper pedicellatum or peepuloides ( together known as Pipia in local trade)
15. Zanthoxylum armatum (Sichuan pepper)
16. Zanthoxylum piperidum
17. Murraya koenigii (Curry plant)

4.2 Standards and quality

The single most important factor which is standing in the way of wider acceptance of drugs based on medicinal plants for exports is non-availability of standards for quality testing by modern methods. A serious thought is needed to be given in this aspect. Even with the best of intentions, no system of medicine can achieve any degree of credibility and mass acceptance unless some degree of quality control or quality assurance is maintained. In fact, absence of regulation governing the identity and quality of herbs in the international trade has enabled substitutes, adulterated as well as fake plants to penetrate the international market, thus giving a bad name to the particular system of medicine.

Quality control in the case of synthetic drugs is much simpler and easier than in the case of drugs prepared from medicinal plants where multiplicity of active ingredients can create a difficulty in quality assurance. The main difficulty in preparing the standards is that most of these products use whole herbs or parts of plants or their extracts and in some cases even a mixture of number of plants. It is also difficult to assure quality of these plants, as, medicinal plants collected in different seasons from the same place can exhibit marked difference in the content of active constituents. It is challenging to develop suitable standards for these drugs.  It is also difficult to measure and quantity the  quality  of various constituents and their therapeutic activity. Again, the standardization of such drugs does not end with the identification or assay of active ingredient, rather it embodies total information and controls which are necessary to guarantee constituents of composition. Quality of raw drugs are influenced by many factors such as age of the plant, the area of origin, harvesting time, method of drying, storage condition, manufacturing process, packing etc. Thus, there are number of bottlenecks in establishing standards for medicinal plants. In this line, there is a need for institutional development for

Official Crude MAP drug Certification Centre

First of all, the crude drugs of standard quality need to be identified and preserved as the reference standard. Therefore, a National Repository of Crude Drugs with an excellent herbarium having authentic reference samples needs to be established. This centre should have the crude drug samples (processed medicinal plants), herbarium specimen, chemical finger print profiles, anatomical slides, supporting literatures-and a collection of living plants. It should provide easy access to wide range of groups including traders, medical practitioners, plant chemists, TM students, academics, regulators as well as the herbal manufacturing industry. User services will also have to be made available. This repository should act as official certification centre for raw materials. In addition to the crude drug samples, it is also necessary to have reference samples of standard marker compounds. A repository of such marker compounds can be developed at the centre

4.3  Knowledge, skills and capacity building

This may be achieved by human resource development in the MAP based products. There is need to initiate HRD in the following areas of operations by exposure visits to institutions/private companies/farmers field etc. in neighbouring country/within country, conducting training programmes, introducing MAPs in academia,  knowledge exchange etc.:

1. For Good Agricultural Practices
2. For Good Forest Collections
3. For Manufacturing of Medicines
4. For Drug testing
5. For Good Manufacturing Practices
6. For checking Pharmacological and toxicological standards
7. For marketing of MAP raw material and products

4.4 Awareness and Publicity of Plant Based Products 

Plant based products whether in the name Traditional medicines  or marketed as food items have been regularly used in the country. The knowledge about the medicinal value of the plants has been systematically documented and the therapies are regularly practiced. With the recent trends towards the use of herbal and natural products there is a need to popularise these products at an international level especially in Europe and USA. The ingredients and the efficacy of the plants need to be projected through the print and electronic media, particularly their strength in treating specific problems like Diabetes, hypertension, liver disorders, Allergic disorders, Arthritis, Neurological disorders, Obesity and Ulcerative-colitis. Their immunomodulatory properties and their efficacy in treating autoimmune disorders like rheumatic conditions must be made known more widely. Various Missions, High Commissions and Embassies of Bhutan in various countries also need to be provided with the literature on Bhutanese Medicinal plants, their uses as well as the literature on Bhutanese Traditional Medicines for various countries.

4.5 Research and Development and Education

In order to harness the potential of MAP of Bhutan into economic wealth, a focused R&D programme is essential. The R & D has to cover all aspects relating to the species from collection to utilisation. MAPs may be categorised as: (i) those which are having proven medicinal value as traditional knowledge (ii) those on which sufficient leads are available, and (iii) those on which much work is required to be done in future.

Research investigations may be initiated on the following aspects with the help of their existing Research facilities by distributing responsibilities among the inter-departmental and inter-ministerial set-ups. Collaboration within the SARRC countries /Indian institutions may also be explored.

1. Economic mapping of the spontaneous flora.
2. Evolving and optimising the most appropriate technologies for conservation, especially for endangered or endemic species and molecular methods for characterisation. Detailed studies on life cycle and breeding behaviour, taxonomy, seed biology
3. Population and habitat viability studies
4. Optimising appropriate methods for post-harvest handling, processing and storage.
5. Investigation on quality control standardization and shelf life of raw materials and finished products.
6. Selection and authentication of plant species.
7. Collection of ethnomedical and ethnobotanical data.
8. Developing high yielding varieties.
9. Medium scale plant propagation.
10. Chemical studies on plant constituents
11. Analytical studies on quantitative assessment of major constituents.
12. Pharmacological and toxicological studies
13. Pilot plant scale processing of plant extracts.
14. Standardisation of extracts.
15. Formulation studies on extracts into dosage forms for new products.

• IPR & Related issues

Medicinal plants represent not only a valuable part of Bhutan’s biodiversity but are also a source of great traditional health knowledge. The biodiversity and the wealth of traditional knowledge systems of the poorer countries has always attracted the researchers from the developed countries and knowledge-rich multinational companies. Some may argue that the access to such biodiversity and traditional knowledge by the developed nations is necessary for the greater welfare of mankind as this facilitates developing new products which ultimately benefit the whole world. However, the poor countries and the local community seldom gets proportionate benefits from such commercial exploitation of their natural resources and intellectual properties.

The existing IPR systems in the world are centered around the concept of private ownership whereas the biodiversity and traditional knowledge are collective creation by a nation or community, therefore private ownership of such material and knowledge for commercial use without the fair benefit sharing arrangements are clear violation of rights.

Many times, wrong patents are given in the area of medicinal plants : the cases of patents grant to inventors in USA for Turmeric (Curcuma longa), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Jamun (Syzygium cumini), Karela (Momordica charantia) which were revoked later by continuous and often lengthy persuasion by Government of India could be referred for example. It must be understood that the patent offices in various countries do make mistakes in checking the novelty of an invention because they usually look at their own databases. So the chances of issuing wrong patents are expected especially when an application based on the indigenous knowledge is being examined in a foreign country. The knowledge which may be in public domain in one country may be a new knowledge to other country. Therefore, it is desired that   traditional knowledge rich country like Bhutan must make their common knowledge available to the Patent offices of other countries, so as to protect their products and knowledge under IPR.

5. Recommendations and conclusion

5.1  MAP Conservation strategies

• Field gene bank needs to be created at least one each in high, mid and low altitude areas. (Long Term)
• In-situ conservation is the best and cost effective method. A few in-situ conservation areas have to be marked and declared as MAP in-situ areas in the forests. (Short Term)
• Identification of forest areas rich in MAPs and bringing policy frame work for intensive management of sustainable harvesting in those areas. (Short Term)
• Categorization of MAPs for their Rare Endangered and Threatened status. (Short Term)
• Services of a qualified taxonomist may be initiated for proper identification of MAP species of trade interest to remove existing confusion in species name of some of the (Short Term)
• Ex-situ conservation by domestication of highly explored species from the forest. (Short Term)

5.2  Strategies for resource utilization

• Empowering the local community and building their capacity in Good Collection Practices for sustainable harvesting. (Short Term)
• Introduction of Good Agricultural Practices for cultivated species. (Short Term)
• Adopting a promotional strategy to inform the world community regarding availability of MAP raw material in Bhutan which adheres to GACP norms and which could fit well to produce high quality herbal drugs using Good Manufacturing Practices (Short Term)
• Low volume is a problem in Bhutan because of small holding, therefore, cultivation may be organized with cluster approach in a community. (Short Term)
• Mechanism may be developed for procuring raw drugs from doorsteps of the growers. Food Corporation of Bhutan could also organize collection, auction and export of MAPs from small individual farmers as is currently pursued for the Cordyceps and Cardamom in southern region. More MAPs could be identified for such trading arrangement.  (Long Term)
• For price stabilization and market assurance, contract farming may be promoted considering the demand and supply chain. (Long Term)
• For cultivation, varieties available in neighbouring countries may directly be introduced for adaptive trials. And after assessing the performance for two years such varieties could be distributed to the farmers eg. Aonla. (Short Term)
• At least one quality analysis laboratory may be created with modern analytical facilities such as HPTLC, HPLC, LC-MS/MS, GC-MS/MS etc –Annexure 4 . (Long Term)
• The quality lab should have a qualified phyto-chemist. (Long Term)

5.3  Researchable issues

• Medicinal plants are scientifically identified, described and sustainably utilized for the benefit of Bhutanese people
• Proper identification of Zanthoxylum species of trade interest and selection of high yielding superior quality fruit producing tree from existing collections. (Short Term)
• Standardization of vegetative propagation protocols for Aonla, Zanthoxylum, etc. (Short Term)
• Ex-situ production of elite seedling/ seeds of selected species for cultivation in the community forest area. (Mid Term)
• Land use planning for getting high quality produce from the right location (e.g. Lemongrass). (Mid Term)
• Plus tree (superior plant type of tree species) selection from the diversity. (Long Term)
• Population assessment important species harvested from the forests in large quantities for formulating sustainable collection strategy. (Long Term)
• Project development for external funding for basic research in selected MAP species. (Short Term)

5.4  Value Addition

• Extraction of essential oil from Carum curvi-(Short Term)
• One or two products have to be highlighted for international market having Bhutan advantage. This needs a market survey- (Long Term)
• Diversification of Capsicum products by capsaicin production. (Short Term)
• Common facilities for drying, grading, packing and labeling to be created at community level. (Short Term)
• Introduction of solar drier and various other labour saving tools in MAP cultivation. (Short Term)
• Training for farm level essential oil extraction and its fractionation for value addition (Short Term)
• Product development and product diversification may be planned in consultation with various industries consuming MAPs. (Mid Term)
• Introduction of MAP products in schools as food supplements and in Government systems.  (Short  to Mid-Term)

5.5  IPR Related Issues

• Documentation and validation of local traditional health care and Folk health care systems for benefit sharing among the local people having traditional knowledge when there are to be commercialized in future.  (Long Term)
• Development of pharmacopeia (Annexure 9) of Bhutanese traditional health care system for avoiding risks of IPR infringements. (Long Term)

5.6  Policy Intervention

• Phyto-chemical industries may be promoted through policy intervention by the Government for systematic commercial utilization of MAPs. (Long Term)
• The country can promote organic production of aromatic crops and high altitude medicinal plants by introducing group certification which is cost effective. (Long Term)
• Continuity in research is critical. Hence frequent shifting of trained human resources should be discouraged as far as possible in the interest of the MAP sector development. (Long Term)
• Strengthening of revolving fund scheme with business target. (Short Term)
• A National Repository of Crude Drugs along with an excellent herbarium facility having authentic reference samples needs to be established. (Long Term)
• With the recent trends towards the use of herbal and natural products there is a need to popularise some of the Bhutanese products at an international level especially in Europe and USA by participating in international trade shows of herbal products and by showcasing the indigenous products. (Long Term)
• Since women are largely involved in MAPs collection and cultivation, small tools may be imported to reduce the drudgery of women. (Short Term)
• European and U.S. markets may be targeted for better price realization of the MAPs. At present, the markets in India and other neighbouring countries of Bhutan are not yet matured enough for a higher price realization for ‘quality organic produce’ from Bhutan and the market size would be negligible, even if any such opportunity exit.  Moreover, exchange rate of European and US currencies would give better price realization advantage.  (Short Term)

5.7  Human Resource Development

• Human resource development in the MAP based products is very essential. (Long Term)
• Exposure in MAP cultivation could be provided to different community leaders by arranging visit to various MAPs cultivation sites in India. (Short Term)
• DMAPR can provide trainers’ training on various aspects of MAP, if requested by RGOB. (Short Term)

5.8  Institutional linkage

• The Department of Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives and the research centers could be linked more coherently for  identification  of MAPs having potential for cultivation and export that need to be researched.
• The only option to address the negative effects of topography is having a well coordinated arrangement for input supply and lifting of produce among various agriculture agencies, traders and farmers to promote exports of MAPs.
• Till basic structure is created for quality analysis, ICAR/ CSIR from India may be approached for providing support.
• Partnership may be established with some of the foreign manufacturers for marketing of surplus produce.
• Similar partnership may be established for Aromatic essential oil with Essential Oil Association of India  and various other Indian industries as well as NGOs like TERI, India.
• DMAPR may act as knowledge partner on various MAPs  about researchable issues.

5.9  Conclusion

References

1. FAO, 1996a. Non-Wood Forest Products of Bhutan, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok.
2. FAO, 1996b. Fact Sheet, Women in Agriculture, Environment and Rural Production. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok.
3. Forest Products of Bhutan. FAO RAP Publication: 1996
4. Grierson, A. J. C.; Long, D. G. 1983. Flora of Bhutan. Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U. K.
5. Government of India (GOI) 2000. Report of the Task Force on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants, Planning Commission, pp. 175.
6. Gurung, J., 1997. ‘Gender Dimensions in Biodiversity Management: Bhutan and Nepal’ (Unpublished) (accessed through FAO, 1996b)
7. High Altitude Medicinal Plants of Bhutan, 2009, ITMS, Bhutan
8. Low altitude Medicinal Plants of Bhutan, 2009, ITMS, Bhutan
9. Report of the Task Force on conservation and sustainable use of Medicinal plants, Government of India, 2000.
10. RGOB 2009. Medicinal plants phase II: Project BTN/AIDCO/99/0081, 9^th and final progress report, Royal Government of Bhutan.
11. RGOB 2007. Guidelines for medicinal plants growers’ association, Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,Royal Government of Bhutan (RGOB), Bhutan.
12. RGOB 2009. Export of medicinal and aromatic plants (Project: BTN/AIDCO/99/0081)
13. Rosenegger, P., 1998. ‘Annual Report: Bhutan’ (unpublished) FAO/RAP Non-Wood (accessed through FAO, 1996b)
14. Tshering, K. 2009. Agriculture and usages of natural resources in Bhutan. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture Shinshu University 45:33-42.
15. UNDP, 1997. Human Development Report, Oxford University Press, New York.
16. Yangzom, K; Krug, I.; Tshomo, K.; Setboonsarng, S. 2008. Market-based certification and management of Non-Timber Forest Products in Bhutan: Organic Lemongrass Oil, Poverty Reduction, and Environmental Sustainability. ADB Institute Discussion Paper No. 106.

1. Solution Exchange of Bhutan, May 2009. Consolidate reply, Query – Exploring markets for medicinal plants – advice, Accessed at –     http://www.solutionexchange- ConsolidatedReports/cr-se-bhutan-04020901.pdf

Annexure 1

Composition of Study Team

            Team Leader

1. Satyabrata Maiti, Director, Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Anand, Gujarat, India

Team members

2. K. A. Geetha, Senior Scientist, Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Anand, Gujarat, India
3. D. Maity, Associate Professor, Calcutta University, Kolkata, India
4. Ugyen Dorji, Commodity Coordinator, MAP and Spices Program, Horticulture Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Royal Government of Bhutan, Bhutan
5. Tshitila, MAP Specialist, RNR RDC Yusipang, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Royal Government of Bhutan, Bhutan
6. Yoenten Norbu, Forest Officer, Non Wood Forest Products Section, Department of Forest and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Royal Government of Bhutan, Bhutan

Annexure 2

Study tour itinerary

Annexure 3

List of participants in brain storming discussion on MAPs held on 9^th December, 2010 in Bhutan

1. Chencho Norbu, Director, Department of Agriculture (Chairman), RGOB, Bhutan
2. Satyabrata Maiti, Director, Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Gujarat, India
3. K. A. Geetha, Senior Scientist, Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Gujarat, India
4. D. Maity, Associate Professor, Calcutta University, Kolkata, India
5. Ugyen Dorji, Commodity Coordinator, MAP and Spices Program, Horticulture Division, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
6. Tshitila, MAP Specialist, RNR RDC Yusipang, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
7. Yoenten Norbu, Forest Officer, Non Wood Forest Products Section, Department of Forest and Park Services, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
8. Ugyen Dendup, Head, Production and Processing Unit, Institute of Traditional Medicine Services, Ministry of Health, RGOB, Bhutan
9. G.B. Chhetri, Agriculture Specialist, DoA, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
10. Kinlay Tshering, Chief Horticulture Officer, Horticulture Division, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
11. Thinlay, Plant Protection Specialist, National Plant Protection Centre, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan,
12. Chimi Rinzin, Chief Agriculture Officer, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
13. Lakey, Sr. Horticulture Officer, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
14. Wangda Dorji, Officer –In –charge, Research and Development Centre, Bhur, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan
15. Sonam Tashi, Associate Professor, College of Natural Resource, Lobesa.
16. Sonam Pelden, Head, Non-wood Forest Section, Department of Forests and park Services, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan.
17. Tashi Tshering, Marketing Officer, Department of Agriculture Marketing and Cooperatives, MOAF, RGOB, Bhutan.
18. Karma Pelden, Research Officer, Research and Development Centre, Yusipang, Bhutan.

Annexure 4

Approximate cost for setting up a quality analysis laboratory

Annexure 5

Cultivars of Aonla (Emblica offcinalis L.) available in India which could be introduced in Bhutan

Annexure 6

List of prioritized Medicinal plant species that needs immediate attention for R&D

Annexure 7

List of prioritized Aromatic plant species that needs immediate attention for R&D

1. Zanthoxylum armatum (Low altitude)
2. Carum curvi (Low altitude)
3. Cymbopogon flexuosus (Low altitude)
4. Dracocephalum tanguticum, D. Wallichi, D. Hemsleyanum (High altitude)
5. Geranium (Low altitude)
6. Pelargonium (Low altitude)
7. Artemisia (Low altitude)
8. Tagetus minuta (Low altitude)
9. Tanacetum nubigenum (High altitude)

Annexure 8

Essential Oil Bearing Plant Resources in Bhutan

Essential oil bearing trees:

Essential oil bearing shrubs:

Essential oil bearing herbs:

Annexure 9

A Annexure 1model of format from Indian Herbal Pharmacopeia

Please see the attached file Adatoda vasica

Annexure 10

List of top 100 Pharmaceutical companies in India (based on export data)

Source: Accessed at http://www.pharmexcil.com/v1/aspx/PharmaCompanies.aspx on 20.01.2011

Annexure 11

MAP species available in forests of Bhutan at different altitudes

(Source: compiled by Dr. D. Maity, Associate Professor, Calcutta University, Kolkata, India-Member of the team)

[1] The members from Bhutan were nominated by MoAF, RGOB and the members from India were nominated by FAO in consultation with DMAPR.

[1] The members from Bhutan were nominated by MoAF, RGOB and the members from India were nominated by FAO in consultation with DMAPR.